Startle response and its prepulse modification in health and under different psychopathologies: Could we find any specific patterns?

Table 1 Summary of studies on prepulse inhibition and prepulse facilitation of the startle response in the cohorts of participants with schizophrenia spectrum disorders, mean ± SD

Ref.	Groups (group size)	Mean age	Side of recording	Lead interval, ms	PPI	PPF
Xue et al[25]	Unmedicated Sch (26)/medicated Sch (20)/Contr (31)	25.4 ± 3.1	Right	30, 60, 120	Sch < Contr at LI 30 and LI 120	NA
Hammer et al[26]	Unmedicated Sch (27)/Contr (38)	27.3 ± 3.6	Right	120	Sch < Contr	NA
Mackeprang et al[27]	Unmedicated Sch (20)/Contr (20)	27.0 ± 2.4	Right	30, 60, 120	Sch < Contr at LI 30, 60, 120	NA
Ludewig et al[28]	Unmedicated Sch (24)/Contr (20)	23.6 ± 4.2	Right	30, 60, 120, 240, 2000	Sch < Contr at LI 60	Sch < Contr
Ludewig et al[29]	Medicated Sch (67)/Contr (44)	38 ± 10.4	Right	30, 60, 120, 240, 2000	Sch < Contr at LI 60	Sch < Contr
Ludewig and Vollenweider[30]	Medicated Sch (19)/Contr (24). Tested 3 times with 1-month interval	Sch 42 ± 9; Contr 30 ± 10	Right	30, 60, 120, 240, 2000	Sch < Contr at LI 60	Sch < Contr, only in the first block (out of three in total)
Düring et al[31]	Unmedicated Sch (52)/Contr (47)	25.4 ± 4.2	Right	60, 120	Sch < Contr at LI 60 and 120	NA
Csomor et al[32]	Unmedicated Sch (14)/Contr (46)	26.1 ± 1.0	Right	60, 120	Sch < Contr at LI 60	NA
Aggernaes et al[33]	Unmedicated Sch (31)/Contr (31)	25.6 ± 0.8	Right	60, 120	Sch < Contr at LI 60	NA
Hammer et al[34]	Unmedicated Sch (13)/Contr (17)	29.3 ± 5.4	Right	30, 60, 120	Sch < Contr at LI 60	NA
Bo et al[35]	Sch (31)/High risk of psychosis/Contr (31)	23.9 ± 2.1	Right	60, 120	Sch < Contr at LI 60	NA
Hedberg et al[36]	Unmedicated Sch (49)/Contr (35)	27.8 ± 0.9	Right	30, 60, 120	Sch < Contr at LI 60	NA
Wang et al[37]	Unmedicated Sch (35)/Contr (35)	20.4 ± 4.5	Right	30, 60, 120	Sch < Contr at LI 60	NA
Storozheva et al[38]	Unmedicated Sch (26 men)/Contr (25 men)	25-50	Right and left	60, 120, 2500	Sch < Contr at LI 60 (right and left)	Sch < Contr, only in the first of two PPI blocks, at the left eye
Storozheva et al[39]	Unmedicated Sch (35 men)/Contr (26 men)	35.3 ± 10.5; 26.4 ± 5.7	Right and left	60, 120, 2500	Sch < Contr at LI 60, 120 (right and left)	No difference
Kirenskaya et al[40]	Unmedicated violent Sch (44)/non violent Sch (27)/Contr (48)	30.2 ± 6.93; 29.4 ± 7.0; 27.6 ± 3.6	Right and left	60, 120, 2500	Violent Sch < contr at LI 60 ms, bilateral; Non violent Sch< at LI 60 ms, right eye	In violent Sch; No difference from Contr; Non violent Sch < Contr; Non violent < violent Sch at both eyes, in 1st PPI block
Cadenhead et al[41]	Medicated Sch (23)/Sch relatives (34)/shizotypal (11)/Contr (25)	34.4 ± 8.5; 46.1 ± 16.1; 44.4 ± 9.0; 41.1 ± 16.7	Right and left	30, 120	Sch < Contr; Sch at LI 30 ms, right eye relatives < Contr at LI 30 ms bilaterally; Shizotypal < Contr at LI 30 ms bilaterally	NA
Wynn et al[43]	Medicated Sch (90)/Sch siblings (48)/Contr (47)	42.70 ± 8.46; 38.23 ± 9.61; 35.64 ± 7.96	Left	120, 4500	No difference	Sch < Contr; Siblings < Contr

Sch: Patients with schizophrenia; Contr: Healthy control; NA: Not applicable; PPI: Prepulse inhibition; PPF: Prepulse facilitation.

Table 2 Summary of studies on prepulse inhibition and prepulse facilitation of the startle response in the cohorts of participants with mood disorders, mean ± SD

Ref.	Groups (group size)	Mean age	Side of recording	Lead interval, ms	PPI	PPF
Matsuo et al[63]	Non-manic BD (63 depressed + 43 euthymic)/ Contr (232)	39.4 ± 8.3	Left	60, 120	BD depressed; Men < Contr at LI 120 ms	NA
Perry et al[64]	Psychotic BD (15)/Sch (16), Contr (17)	34.4 ± 9.7	Right	30, 60, 120	Sch < Contr; BD < Contr at LI 60 ms and 120 ms	NA
Perry et al[65]	MDD (15)/Contr (17)	34.1 ± 8.3	Right	30, 60, 120	No difference	NA
Quednow et al[66]	MDD (20), Contr (18)	35.4 ± 8.3	Right	150	No difference	NA
Barrett et al[67]	Euthymic BD (23)/Contr (20)	44.4 ± 10.2	Left	60, 120	No difference	NA
Rich et al[68]	Children with BD (16)/Contr (17)	13.1 ± 2.3	Right	60, 120	No difference	NA
Carroll et al[69]	BD (32)/Contr (35)	34.5 ± 7.9	Right	60, 120	No difference	NA
Giakoumaki et al[70]	BD (21) BD/siblings (21)/Contr (19)	18-50 (range)	Right	60, 120	BD < Contr; BD siblings < Contr at LI 60 ms and 120 ms	NA
Gogos et al[71]	BD (31)/Contr (35)	21-61 (range)	Right	60, 120	Men BD < Contr at LI 60 ms; Women BD > Contr at LI 120 ms	NA
Ivleva et al[72]	BD (38)/Sch (62) relatives (32 Sch and 29 BD)/Contr (53)	40.58 ± 10.73; 36.18 ± 10.37; 41.97 ± 10.84; 32.19 ± 14.98; 36.84 ± 11.35	Right	120, 4500	No difference	No difference
Sánchez-Morla et al[73]	BD (52)/Contr (50)	70.9 ± 8.3	Right	60, 120	BD < Contr at LI 60 ms and 120 ms	NA
Matsuo et al[74]	MDD (221)/Contr (250)	18-64 (range)	Left	60, 120	Men MDD < Contr at LI 120 ms; Women no difference	NA
Massa et al[75]	Sch (143), Sch-Fam (178), SAD (123), SAD-Fam (152), BD (138), BD-Fam(183), Contr (226)	37.87 ± 12.77; 35.49 ± 13.48; 40.17 ± 15.89; 34.13 ± 11.93; 43.47 ± 15.87; 38.28 ± 12.17; 39.43 ± 16.28	Right	120, 4500	No difference	No difference

Sch: Patients with schizophrenia; Contr: Healthy control; NA: Not applicable; PPI: Prepulse inhibition; PPF: Prepulse facilitation; BD: Bipolar disorder; MDD: Major depressive disorder; SAD: Schizoaffective disorder; Sch-Fam: Relatives of patients with schizophrenia; BD-Fam: Relatives of patients with bipolar disorder.

Table 3 Summary of studies on prepulse inhibition and prepulse facilitation of the startle response in cohorts of participants with trauma- and anxiety-related disorders, mean ± SD

Ref.	Groups (group size)	Mean age	Side of recording	Lead interval, ms	PPI	PPF
Post-traumatic stress disorder
Grillon et al[76]	Unmedicated PTSD veterans (21)/non PTSD veterans) (11)/non-PTSD civilians (17)	41.3 ± 5.0	Left	120	PTSD < non-PTSD civilians	NA
Grillon et al[77]	Unmedicated PTSD veterans (34)/non PTSD veterans) (17)/non-PTSD civilians (14)	44.1 ± 3.8	Left	120	PTSD < non-PTSD civilians	NA
Grillon et al[78]	Unmedicated PTSD veterans (21)/non PTSD veterans (15)/non-PTSD civilians (22)	47.6 ± 3.6	Left	120	PTSD < non-PTSD civilians	NA
Butler et al[79]	No data on medication PTSD veterans (20)/non PTSD veterans (18)	40.9 ± 4.4	Right	120	No difference	NA
Ornitz et al[80]	Unmedicated PTSD children (6)/control children (6)	8-13 (range)	Left	120, 250, 800, 2000	PTSD < control (at LI 120)	PTSD > control
Lipschitz et al[81]	PTSD girls (28)/control girls (23)	16.5 ± 2.2	Left	120, 2000	No difference	No difference
Holstein et al[82]	PTSD patients (27)/control (24)	38.6 ± 2.8	Right	60, 120, 2000	No difference	No difference
Pineles et al[83]	PTSD women (22)/trauma control women (25)	31.98 (9.7)	Left	120	PTSD < control	NA
Meteran et al[84]	Refugees with PTSD (25)/refugees without PTSD (20)	45.8 ± 7.3	Right	60, 120	No difference	NA
Acheson et al[85]	Combatants with PTSD (46)/combatants without PTSD (1182)	22.7 ± 1.6	Left	30, 60, 120	PTSD < combatants without PTSD, at LI 30 ms and 60 ms	NA
Echiverri-Cohen et al[86]	PTSD (28)/trauma without PTSD (27)/control (19)	32.3 ± 5.8	Left	30, 60, 120	PTSD < trauma without PTSD and control at LI 30 ms and 60 ms	NA
Panic disorders
Ludewig et al[87]	Panic disorder (20)/control (21)	31.5 ± 10.0	Right	30, 60, 120, 240 2000	Panic disorder < control at LI 30, 60, 120, 240 ms	No difference
Ludewig et al[88]	Panic disorder unmedicated (14)/panic disorder medicated (24)/control (28)	35 ± 8.1	Right	30, 60, 120, 240 2000	Panic disorder < control at LI 30, 60, 120, 240 ms	No difference
Larsen et al[89]	Panic disorder (12)/social phobia (22)/control (15)	33.6 ± 9.2	Right	100	No difference	NA
Storozheva et al[50]	General anxiety disorder + panic disorder (69)/control (50)	31.8 ± 0.9	Left and right	60, 120 2500	No difference	Patients < control
Anxiety traits
Duley et al[49]	High anxiety trait (15)/low (23) anxiety trait	21.2 ± 0.24	Left and right	30, 60, 120	High < low at 30, 60, 120 ms averaged from both eyes	NA
De Pascalis et al[90]	High anxiety trait (15)/low (23) anxiety trait	24.6 ± 3.8	Left	30, 60, 120	No difference (higher amplitude in high anxiety group)	NA
McMillan et al[91]	High (25)/low (25) anxiety sensitivity trait	22.8 ± 3.1	Left	120	High < low	NA
Nocturnal enuresis
Ornitz et al[92]	ADHD children (30)/NE children (13)/NE + ADHD children (17)/control children (42)	6-11 (range)	Left	60, 120, 4000 (control)	NE < non NE + ADHD, NE + ADHD < control (at LI 120 ms)	No difference

NA: Not applicable; PPI: Prepulse inhibition; PPF: Prepulse facilitation; PTSD: Post-traumatic stress disorder; ADHD: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; NE: Nocturnal enuresis.

Table 4 Summary of studies on prepulse inhibition and prepulse facilitation in the cohorts of participants with obsessive-compulsive disorder, mean ± SD

Ref.	Groups (group size)	Mean age	Side of recording	Lead interval, ms	PPI	PPF
Hoenig et al[93]	OCD (34)/Contr (33)	31.5 ± 1.6	Right	120	OCD < Contr	NA
Swerdlow et al[94]	OCD (34)/Contr (33)	36.2 ± 2.1	Right	100	OCD < Contr	NA
de Leeuw et al[95]	Unmedicated OCD (25)/Contr (25)	32 ± 7.4	Right	100	No difference	NA
Ahmari et al[96]	Unmedicated OCD (22)/Contr (22)	31 ± 6.3	Right	100	OCD < Contr	NA
Schleyken et al[97]	Treatment refractory OCD (15)/Contr (21)	20-64 (range)	Right	60, 120, 200	No difference	NA
Steinman et al[98]	Unmedicated OCD (45)/Contr (62)	28.2 ± 4.3	Right	120	OCD < Contr (in female only)	NA

PPI: Prepulse inhibition; PPF: Prepulse facilitation; Contr: Healthy control; NA: Not applicable; OCD: Obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Table 5 Summary of studies on prepulse inhibition and prepulse facilitation of the startle response in the cohorts of participants with Tourette syndrome, mean ± SD

Ref.	Groups (group size)	Mean age	Side of recording	Lead interval, ms	PPI	PPF
Castellanos et al[52]	ADHD (7)/ADHD + TS (7)/Contr (14)	11.4 ± 1.7	Left and right	30, 60, 120, 250 (tactile pulse and prepulse)	ADHD + TS < Contr ADHD + TS < ADHD across all LI	NA
Swerdlow et al[53]	TS (10)/Contr (14)	9-17 (range)	Left and right	120 (tactile pulse and prepulse)	TS < Contr	NA
Schleyken et al[97]	Treatment refractory TS (6)/Contr (21)	20-64 (range)	Right	60, 120, 200 (80 dB)	No difference	NA
Buse et al[99]	TS (22)/Contr (22)	13.5 ± 1.62	Left	140 (tactile pulse and prepulse)	TS < Contr	NA
Zebardast et al[100]	TS (17)/Contr (16)	30.4 ± 8.9	Left	100 (tactile pulse and prepulse)	No difference	NA

PPI: Prepulse inhibition; PPF: Prepulse facilitation; Contr: Healthy control; NA: Not applicable; TS: Tourette syndrome; ADHD: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Table 6 Summary of studies on prepulse inhibition and prepulse facilitation of the startle response in cohorts of participants with autistic spectrum disorders, mean ± SD

Ref.	Groups (group size)	Mean age	Side of recording	Lead interval, ms	PPI	PPF
McAlonan et al[101]	Autistic (12)/Contr (14)	32.5 ± 8.2	Right	30, 60, 120	Autistic < Contr at LI 120 ms	NA
Perry et al[102]	Autistic (14)/Contr (16)	28.7 ± 5.4	Right	30, 60, 120	Autistic < Contr at LI 60 ms	NA
Yuhas et al[103]	FXS - A (17)/FXS + A (15)/IA (15)/Contr (18)	16.4 ± 1.8	Not specified	60, 120, 240	FXS - A < Contr FXS + A < Contr IA vs Contr; no diffference	NA
Sinclair et al[104]	MCDD (11)/autistic (12)/Contr (11)	11.4 ± 1.3; 11.8 ± 1.7; 11.1 ± 1.9	Not specified	120	No difference	NA
Kohl et al[105]	Autistic (17)/Contr (17)	41.8 ± 8.1	Right	60, 120, 240	No difference	NA
Madsen et al[106]	Autistic (18)/Contr (34)	11.2 ± 0.8	Right	60, 120	Autistic > Contr at LI 120 ms	NA
Takahashi et al[107]	Autistic (17)/Contr (27)	11.3 ± 1.2	Right	120	No difference in PPI, ASR amplitude; autistic > Contr at low pulse intensity	NA

PPI: Prepulse inhibition; PPF: Prepulse facilitation; Contr: Healthy control; NA: Not applicable; MCDD: Multiple complex developmental disorders; IA: Idiopathic autism; FXS: Fragile X syndrome; A: Autism.

Table 7 Summary of studies on prepulse inhibition and prepulse facilitation of the startle response in cohorts of participants with neurodegenerative disorders, mean ± SD

Ref.	Groups (group size)	Mean age	Side of recording	Lead interval, ms	PPI	PPF
Aygün et al[108]	REM sleep disorders (19)/Contr (17)	43.8 ± 7.60	Left	200	REM sleep disorders < Contr	NA
Zoetmulder et al[109]	REM sleep disorders (12)/PD (40)/MSA (10)/Contr (20)	56.3 ± 13.0; 62.7 ± 6.6; 63.4 ± 6.7; 56.4 ± 10.0	Right	30, 60, 120, 300	MSA < Contr at 60 ms and 120 ms	NA
Hanzlíková et al[110]	Functiomal movement disorders (22)/Contr (22)	47.5 ± 9.8	Left and right	100 (electrical stimulation)	Functional movement disorders < Contr	NA
Millian-Morell et al[111]	PD (54)/Contr (35)	70.4 ± 9.8	Right	60, 120, 1000	PD > Contr at LI 120 ms	PD > Contr
Aziz[112]	Mild AD (20)/first degree (20)/Contr (30)	79.4 ± 4.7	Right	30, 60, 120, 2000	Mild AD < Contr/first degree < Contr (trend) at LI 120 ms	No difference
Ueki et al[113]	Mild AD (20)/first degree relatives (20)/Contr (30)	70.5 ± 5.7	Right	50	Mild AD < Contr/first degree relatives > Contr	NA
Salem et al[114]	AD + MCI (22)/Contr (33)	72.6 ± 4.3	Right	30, 60, 120	No difference	NA
Hejl et al[115]	AD (26)/MCI (22)/Contr (49)	73.1 ± 3.5	Right	30, 60, 120	No difference	NA
Swerdlow et al[116]	HD (22)/Contr (22)	45.2 ± 6.4	Right	30, 60, 120 acoustic and tactile	HD < Contr across al LI	NA

PPI: Prepulse inhibition; PPF: Prepulse facilitation; Contr: Healthy control; PD: Parkinson disease; REM: Rapid eye movements; MSA: multiple system atrophy; AD: Alzheimer’s disease; MCI: Mild cognitive impairment; HD: Huntington disease.