Interaction between the brain and multiple organ systems in schizophrenia

Figure 1 Dynamic interactions between the brain and other organs in schizophrenia. Cardiovascular system: Connected to the brain via the autonomic nervous system. Reduced heart rate variability indicates dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system in schizophrenia. Pulmonary system: Interacts with the brain through oxygen homeostasis. Hypoxia can affect neurodevelopment and contribute to schizophrenia’s pathophysiology. Metabolic system: In schizophrenia, increased soluble epoxide hydrolase expression and decreased brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels may affect brain function through the brain-liver axis and lipid metabolism. Renal system: In schizophrenia, the renal system interacts with the brain via the renin-angiotensin system and is associated with neuroinflammation and erythropoietin. SEH: Soluble epoxide hydrolase; BDNF: Brain-derived neurotrophic factor; HRV: Heart rate variability; RAS: Renin-angiotensin system.