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Copyright ©The Author(s) 2016. Published by Baishideng Publishing Group Inc. All rights reserved.
World J Gastroenterol. Jan 14, 2016; 22(2): 801-814
Published online Jan 14, 2016. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v22.i2.801
Noncoding RNAs and pancreatic cancer
Juan-Fei Peng, Yan-Yan Zhuang, Feng-Ting Huang, Shi-Neng Zhang, Department of Gastroenterology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510120, Guangdong Province, China
Author contributions: Peng JF, Zhuang YY and Huang FT performed the literature search, wrote the first draft of the manuscript and approved the final version; Zhang SN reviewed the literature and revised this paper critically.
Supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China, No. 81572348; the Science and Technology Planning Project of Guangdong Province, No. 2013B021800099; and the Foundation of Guangzhou Science and Technology Bureau, No. 201510010206.
Conflict-of-interest statement: We declare that we have no competing interests.
Open-Access: This article is an open-access article which was selected by an in-house editor and fully peer-reviewed by external reviewers. It is distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited and the use is non-commercial. See: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/
Correspondence to: Dr. Shi-Neng Zhang, PhD, Department of Gastroenterology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, 107 Yangjiang Rd, Guangzhou 510120, Guangdong Province, China. shinengz@163.net
Telephone: +86-20-81332598 Fax: +86-20-81332244
Received: May 28, 2015
Peer-review started: June 2, 2015
First decision: July 14, 2015
Revised: September 1, 2015
Accepted: November 30, 2015
Article in press: December 1, 2015
Published online: January 14, 2016

Abstract

Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) represent a class of RNA molecules that typically do not code for proteins. Emerging data suggest that ncRNAs play an important role in several physiological and pathological conditions such as cancer. The best-characterized ncRNAs are the microRNAs (miRNAs), which are short, approximately 22-nucleotide sequences of RNA of approximately 22-nucleotide in length that regulate gene expression at the posttranscriptional level, through transcript degradation or translational repression. MiRNAs can function as master gene regulators, impacting a variety of cellular pathways important to normal cellular functions as well as cancer development and progression. In addition to miRNAs, long ncRNAs, which are transcripts longer than 200 nucleotides, have recently emerged as novel drivers of tumorigenesis. However, the molecular mechanisms of their regulation and function, and the significance of other ncRNAs such as piwi-interacting RNAs in pancreas carcinogenesis are largely unknown. This review summarizes the growing body of evidence supporting the vital roles of ncRNAs in pancreatic cancer, focusing on their dysregulation through both genetic and epigenetic mechanisms, and highlighting the promise of ncRNAs in diagnostic and therapeutic applications of pancreatic cancer.

Key Words: Noncoding RNAs, Diagnosis, Pancreatic cancer, Therapy, Prognosis

Core tip: Emerging data suggest that noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) play a vital role in pancreatic cancer. They contribute to pancreatic cancer through regulation of gene expression at the chromatin, transcriptional, or posttranscriptional level. However, their function and mechanism in pancreatic cancer development are not fully understood. This review focuses on ncRNAs dysregulation in pancreatic cancer through both genetic and epigenetic mechanisms, and the impact of this dysregulation on pancreatic cancer risk. We highlight the potential role of the most promising ncRNAs in diagnostic and therapeutic applications.



INTRODUCTION

The incidence of pancreatic cancer ranges from 1/100000 to 10/100000, and is generally higher in developed countries and among men. It has remained stable for the past 30 years, in contrast to that of other common solid tumors. It is the eighth leading cause of cancer death in men and the ninth in women throughout the world[1]. In China, the incidence rate of pancreatic cancer increased from 3.24/100000 in 2003 to 3.59/100000 in 2011 with an annual percentage change of 1.44. The mortality rate was 5.40/100000 (male 5.88/100000, female 4.89/100000), ranking 6th among all cancers[2]. In the United States, pancreatic cancer is expected to affect 46000 people, and 40000 people are expected to die from it. The American Cancer Society reported 43920 new cases of pancreatic cancer in the United States in 2012[3,4]. The overall 5-year survival rate of patients with pancreatic cancer is less than 6% and this dismal prognosis has not improved in recent years, resulting in an increasing number of deaths. The high fatality due to pancreatic cancer is attributed to failure to diagnose the disease early before it has metastasized to other organs and resistance of the cancer cells to current therapies[5].

Genetic analysis has established a model of pancreatic cancer progression. Key shared genetic alterations associated with pancreatic cancer progression include earliest genetic events such as mutations in K-RAS and overexpression of HER-2/neu. At later stages, inactivation of the p16 tumor suppressor gene often occurs, followed by loss of p53, disturbance of SMAD4, and BRCA2 signaling pathways and other genomic-transcriptomic alterations that facilitate deregulation of cell-cycle control and survival, invasion and metastasis[6]. Findings from genetically engineered mouse models are consistent with this model of genetic progression[7]. Since these are alterations of tumor suppressor genes, they have not yet led to solutions for therapeutic interventions. Beyond these mutational events, the pancreatic cancer genome is characterized by diverse, large scale chromosomal changes with frequent amplifications, deletions, and rearrangements[8]. Recently, basic research on potential disease mechanisms has benefited greatly from studies using model organisms and/or novel experimental systems. Insights from such studies are providing mounting evidence that noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) and ncRNA-regulatory processes are important players in tumorigenesis of the pancreas. In this review, we will focus on the characteristics and biological roles of several ncRNAs, with particular emphasis on their roles in pancreatic cancer. Potential therapeutic applications of the ncRNAs will also be discussed.

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF MAJOR HUMAN NCRNAS

Early biochemistry studies identified three families of RNA that function cooperatively in the process of protein synthesis: messenger, transfer, and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Messenger RNAs (mRNA) carry genetic information copied from DNA that specifies a particular amino acid, dictating the polypeptide sequence. Transfer RNAs (tRNA) bind a complementary amino acid and carry it to the growing end of a polypeptide chain. rRNA bind to protein complexes, which physically move along mRNAs and catalyze the assembly of amino acids into the nascent polypeptide chain[9]. The technological advances applied to functional genomics during the last decade have opened new frontiers in the field of RNA biology. To date, approximately 35% of the human genes identified by the ENCODE project (about 57000; GENCODE version 17) encode for proteins[10,11]. The vast majority of the remaining genes (about 65%) are transcribed into RNAs but do not encode proteins, which are generally known as ncRNAs. NcRNAs comprise several classes of RNAs, classified in different groups according to their length, function, cellular localization, orientation or other criteria (these classifications are continuously being adjusted as new data are being acquired). Generally, ncRNAs less than 200 nucleotides (nt) in length are classified as short, while all larger transcripts are regarded as long ncRNAs (lncRNAs). There are several subtypes of long and short ncRNAs species, many of which are involved in regulation of gene expression. These can be further grouped according to their genomic origins and biogenic processes (Table 1).

Table 1 Main classes and function of human noncoding RNAs.
RNA typesLength (nt)Function
Small non-coding RNAs (< 200 nt)
Protein synthesis RNAs
Transfer RNAsAbout 80Carrying amino acids to connect with mRNA
Ribosomal 5S and 5.8S RNAs121-200Component of ribosomes
Small nucleolar RNAs70-200Involved in maturation of other non-coding RNAs
Small nuclear RNAsAbout 150Joining with proteins to form spliceosomes controlling alternative splicing
Regulatory RNAs
MicroRNAs20-23Negatively regulating gene expression by joining an enzyme and blocking mRNA, or speeding its breakdown
Small interfering RNAs21-22Silencing specific genes in a sequence-specific manner.
PIWI-interacting RNAsAbout 25-33Controlling retrotransposition and regulating methylation.
Promoter-associated short RNAs< 200Regulating gene expression through interaction with gene promoter sites
Long non-coding RNAs (> 200 nt)
Ribosomal 28S and 18S RNAs200-5070Component of ribosomes
Long intergenic non-coding RNAs or long intronic non-coding RNAs> 200Various
Telomere-associated ncRNAs100 bp > 9 kbNegative regulators of telomere
Antisense RNAsBinding and blocking the translation of mRNA target
Promoter-associated short RNAs> 200Regulating gene expression through interaction with gene promoter sites
Transcribed-ultraconserved regions200-799Long-range enhancer-like activity, maintenance of splicing factor expression levels and transcription regulation

The majority of the non-protein-coding transcripts belong to the group of lncRNAs. The number of genes encoding for lncRNAs identified so far is approximately 13000 (GENCODE version 17), representing more than 20% of the human genome. To date, a small number of these have been studied in detail, shedding light on their functions and mechanisms of action in regulating cellular processes such as cell growth and apoptosis, development, and cell pluripotency and differentiation)[12-14]. Unlike miRNAs and piRNAs, lncRNAs are highly diverse in structure and function. LncRNAs typically have the same structures as mRNAs such as the 5’ cap, polyadenylated 3’ tail and undergo splicing to give rise to the final product. They are localized both in the nucleus and cytoplasm, but the signals that drive their localization are not known. One important consideration is that, while sequence conservation of lncRNAs is reportedly poor, transcripts with corresponding positions and directions in reference to protein coding genes are more common, indicating that their functions may well be conserved. It was observed that genes are usually located very proximal to the lncRNA on the genome[15]. Based on their proximity to protein coding genes, lncRNAs can be further classified into five categories: sense, antisense, bidirectional, intronic, and intergenic[16]. Although lncRNAs constitute the majority of the transcriptome, we certainly understand less of their biologic functions than those of their lesser counterparts. They are attributed with an ever-increasing number of functional activities including genomic imprinting and transcriptional regulation, including both cis- and trans-acting effect. This is achieved via a variety of mechanisms such as antisense inhibition, transcriptional interference, recruitment of chromatin remodeling complexes, and promoter inactivation by binding to basal transcriptional factors (TFs)[17]. Recently, it has been shown that several lncRNAs may be spliced at their 5’ and 3’ ends to form circular RNAs (circRNA). However, the functional importance of circularization, presumably for increased stability, has not been confirmed[18].

In contrast to lncRNAs, short ncRNAs have been extensively classified based on their genomic origins and precise mechanisms of action. The miRNAs are the best-characterized family of ncRNAs to date. Mature, functional miRNAs sequences are 20-23 nt in length, and are usually produced as RNA polymeraseII-transcribed primary transcripts, namely pri-miRNA. The biogenesis of a pri-miRNA transcript occurs either through the canonical pathway involving Drosha and Dicer or through various noncanonical pathways that are Drosha- and even Dicer-independent[19-21]. Similarly, recent data show that miRNAs can be produced from snoRNA, tRNA, or Y-RNA, as intermediate products[22]. The human genome encodes thousands of miRNAs, which regulate a large fraction of the human transcriptome. An increasing number of TFs and miRNAs are known to form feedback loops (FBLs) of interactions where a TF positively or negatively regulates the expression of a miRNA, and the miRNA suppresses the translation of the TF mRNA. FBLs are potential sources of instability in a gene regulatory network. Positive FBLs can give rise to switching behaviors, while negative FBLs can generate periodic oscillations. MiRNAs and TFs can modulate the expression of multiple targets, alter cell fate and are often engaged in mutually reinforcing functions. However, miRNAs differ from TFs in many critical ways. Firstly, almost all the known miRNAs are repressors, while TFs are either repressors or activators and in some rare cases can act as both depending on the target and interacting partners. Secondly, miRNAs usually bring about down-regulation of their targets by a post-transcriptional mechanism, by degrading the target RNA or blocking its translation. TF interaction with target DNA is largely mediated through structural elements, while miRNA interactions with targets are largely governed by the rules of nucleic acid complementarity and are therefore more easily predicted. When a particular gene is targeted by a TF, there is usually a single or at most a few tandemly repeated sites present at that locus. However, a typical miRNA-target interaction is characterized by miRNA molecules binding to several mRNA molecules. Lastly, TFs are usually not consumed in the TF-DNA interactions and may indeed engage in multiple rounds of regulation. The fate of the miRNA engaged in a miRNA-target complex is not understood with similar clarity[23-27]. MiRNAs have been shown to be associated with many of the classical hallmarks of cancer, including proliferation, apoptosis, differentiation, and angiogenesis. With their widespread range of influence on biological pathways and implications as either oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes, their dysregulation is naturally an important factor in tumorigenesis leading to pancreatic cancer.

The piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) are 25-33 nt in length, which depend on the PIWI protein group they bind to, and they lack sequence conservation between organisms. PiRNAs were first discovered in Drosophila as repeat-associated siRNAs, which show complementarily to a variety of transposable and repetitive elements. Unlike Drosophila piRNAs, more than 90% of mammalian piRNAs can be mapped uniquely in the genome and they cluster to a small number of loci. PiRNA clusters are transcribed in the sense or antisense direction, and the long single-stranded RNA serves as the basis for piRNA production. Recent research highlighted the complexity of piRNA biogenesis pathways, which have just begun to be elucidated[28]. PiRNAs are distinct from miRNA in that there is no evidence for a double-stranded RNA precursor and their biogenesis is independent of Dicer. There are two proposed pathways for generating piRNAs: a primary processing pathway and a “ping-pong” amplification loop, as recently reviewed[29,30].

LONG NCRNAS IN PANCREATIC CANCER

As shown above, lncRNAs, including several newly found lncRNAs: enhancer RNA[31], competing endogenous RNA[32], circRNA[33], and antisense long non-coding RNA[34], are a class of transcripts longer than 200 nt, which is functional, rather than “transcriptional noise” (non-functional RNA) as previously believed. Although only a small part of lncRNAs has been well-characterized to date, the significance of lncRNAs dysregulation has been investigated in diverse human diseases, especially in malignant tumor[35-41]. Here, we systematically summarize the dysregulated lncRNAs in pancreatic cancer (Table 2).

Table 2 Long noncoding RNAs dysregulated in pancreatic cancer.
Names of lncRNAsGenomic locationExpressionRoles in pancreatic cancerRef.
H1911p15.5UpregulatedCell proliferation, migration, invasion, target therapy[42-47]
HOTAIR12q12.13UpregulatedCell proliferation, cell cycle, apoptosis, migration, invasion[48-52]
HOTTIP7p15.2UpregulatedCell proliferation, cell cycle, migration, invasion, drug resistance[58,59]
MALAT-111q13UpregulatedCell proliferation, migration, invasion[60-65]
PVT18q24.21UpregulatedDrug resistance[66-69]
HULC6p24.3UpregulatedCell proliferation[70]
AF33981313q31.3UpregulatedCell proliferation, apoptosis[71]
Gas51q25.1DownregulatedCell proliferation, cell cycle[72]
ENST0000048073912q13DownregulatedNot mentioned[73]
H19

As the first lncRNA to be identified in human disease, H19 is a maternally imprinted gene on chromosome 11p15.5, and contains five exons and four introns. The gene is mainly localized in cytoplasm, and is highly expressed during embryo development and strongly repressed after birth. However, multiple studies have shown that H19 was re-expressed in many types of cancers, such as esophagus, colon, liver, and bladder cancers. Furthermore, studies have indicated that H19 possesses both tumor promoter and suppressor functions[42-44]. In pancreatic cancer, H19 was not only markedly overexpressed in tumor tissues and cell lines, its expression also positively correlated with invasion and migration of the tumor. H19 plays its role by partially antagonizing let-7’s targeting of HMGA2-mediated EMT (epithelial-mesenchymal transition)[45]. In addition, studies have demonstrated that DNA-based therapy controlled by H19 gene sequences either alone or in combination with gemcitabine could improve the effectiveness of pancreatic cancer treatment[46,47].

HOX transcript antisense intergenic RNA

HOX transcript antisense intergenic RNA (HOTAIR) is a 2158 nt transcript located on chromosome 12q12.13, which regulates the nearby HOX genes[48,49]. Previous studies reported that HOTAIR acted as an oncogene in many cancers, including breast cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, non-small cell lung cancer and colon cancer. Artificially up-regulating HOTAIR in cancer cells strongly increased cell proliferation, and invasive and metastatic abilities. Knockdown of HOTAIR in cancer cells that overexpressed HOTAIR impaired their invasion and metastasis[48,50-52]. Several studies demonstrated that this could be attributed to its 5’- and 3’- domain selectively binding PRC2 (polycomb repressive complex 2) and LSD1/coREST/REST protein complexes, respectively. Following binding of PRC2 and LSD1/coREST/REST protein complexes, HOTAIR recruits these complexes to the HOXD locus on chromosome 2. This is followed by further recruitment of zeste12 suppressed and zeste homolog2 enhanced, leading to H3K27 trimethylation and H3K4 demethylation, finally resulting in repression of genes involved in cell proliferation and metastasis. Further analysis of gene expression indicated that there were also a great number of genes up regulated when HOTAIR was overexpressed. Depleting PRC2 in cancer cells overexpressing HOTAIR resulted in the gene expression profile changing into that of cancer cells without HOTAIR overexpression[48,50-52].

HOTAIR also has higher expression level in pancreatic cancer tissues compared to adjacent non-cancerous pancreatic tissues[53]. RNAi-mediated knockdown of HOTAIR resulted in: (1) decrease in cell proliferation, changes in cell cycle progression, and induction of apoptosis; (2) blockage of cell invasiveness and metastatic ability both in vitro and in vivo; and (3) significant changes in the gene expression profile. Interestingly, when analyzing some of these changed genes, researchers found the changes involved both PRC2-dependent and -independent mechanisms. As HOTAIR was located both in the nucleus and cytoplasm, it was very likely, besides functioning through PRC2, that HOTAIR may play roles through different mechanisms[53].

HOXA transcript at the distal tip

HOXA transcript at the distal tip (HOTTIP) is another HOX-associated lncRNA transcribed from the 5’ tip of the HOXA locus, which directly controls the expression of multiple 5’ HOXA locus genes via interaction with PRC2 and WDR5/MLL1 chromatin modifying complexes[54]. Although HOTTIP was significantly expressed and functioned in anatomically distal human fibroblasts[55], its up-regulation and coordination with HOXA13 have been recently studied in hepatocellular carcinomas[56]. In hepatocellular carcinomas, HOTTIP serves as a negative prognostic factor, and HOTTIP expression was associated with increased cell proliferation and enhanced metastasis. In addition, HOTTIP is linked to deletion of the vitamin D receptor in keratinocytes, which contributes to the formation of skin cancer[57]. With regard to pancreatic cancer, it was found that HOTTIP was significantly up-regulated in pancreatic cancer tissues and in pancreatic cancer cell lines compared with non-cancerous pancreatic tissues and the non-tumor pancreatic cell line HPDE6. In the same study, it was further documented that HOTTIP inhibition resulted in proliferation arrest, impaired cell invasion by inhibiting EMT, and potentiated the antitumor effects of gemcitabine both in vitro and in vivo. All of these functions were fulfilled partially by coordinating the activation of HOXA13[58]. Another research group showed that HOTTIP regulates pancreatic cancer cell proliferation, apoptosis and migration via its regulation of several other HOX genes including HOXA10, HOXB2, HOXA11, HOXA9, and HOXA1 rather than HOXA13[59]. Thus, further studies are needed to elucidate the mechanism of HOTTIP function.

Metastasis-associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript 1

Metastasis-associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript 1 (MALAT-1), also named nuclear-enriched abundant transcript 2 (NEAT1) is another extensively investigated lncRNA. It is more than 8000 nt in length, expressed on chromosome 11q13 and localizes to nuclear speckles after being spliced. The gene was first found in non-small cell lung cancer and serves as a predictive marker of metastasis and a therapeutic target in non-small cell lung cancer, thus the name[60]. Thereafter, an increasing number of studies reported that MALAT-1 was also overexpressed in many other cancer types, and was associated with cancer metastatic potential, shorter survival, and poor prognosis in patients with these cancers as well as non-small cell lung cancer. Moreover, the mechanisms of MALAT-1 functioning in cancer occurrence and development were also widely explored. For example, the mechanism underlying MALAT-1 interacting with and binding unmethylated polycomb 2 protein, which controls the relocalization of growth-related genes between polycomb bodies and interchromatin granules, has been reported in detail[61], and a study on colorectal cancer demonstrated that the 3’ end of MALAT-1 has a vital biological motif in colorectal cancer cell invasiveness and metastasis[62].

MALAT-1 was also shown to be up-regulated in pancreatic cancer tissues and cell lines[63,64]. Further studies demonstrated that high MALAT-1 expression was correlated with advanced tumor clinical stages, positive lymph node and distant metastasis, and poor survival. Knockdown of MALAT-1 resulted in reduced cell proliferation, migration, and invasion in vitro, and blocked cell metastasis in vivo[65]. All these findings indicate that MALAT-1 may act as a cancer promoting factor in pancreatic cancer, and suggest a potential therapeutic role of MALAT-1 targeted therapy in pancreatic cancer.

PVT1

PVT1 was identified in 1986[66]. Previous studies showed that PVT1 possessed oncogenic potential in many malignant tumors. However, it was not until recently that studies investigating PVT1 gene in pancreatic cancer have emerged[66], including the study on negative regulation of PVT1 on pancreatic cancer cell sensitivity to gemcitabine, the finding of a susceptibility allele rs1561927 in PVT1[67], and a study on PVT1 expression level in pancreatic tissues[68]. In this study, researchers used qRT-PCR to measure PVT1 expression level in pancreatic tissues and analyzed its association with clinical-pathological parameters and patient overall survival, and found that PVT1 had much higher expression in pancreatic cancer tissues than non-cancerous tissues, and was positively correlated with poor survival of patients. However, studies on the detailed mechanisms of PVT1 in pancreatic cancer as well as in other cancer types are very scarce.

Other newly found overexpressed lncRNA

Highly up-regulated in liver cancer (HULC) is a cancer-related lncRNA, residing on chromosome 6p24.3. It mainly functions in the cytoplasm. HULC was found to be overexpressed in a group of metastatic and advanced clinical stage pancreatic tumors and could promote cell proliferation in vitro[69]. Recently, lncRNA AF339813 was found to be overexpressed and positively regulated by NUF2 (Ndc80 kinetochore complex component) in pancreatic cancer cells[70].

Down-regulated lncRNAs

Besides the above-mentioned lncRNAs up-regulated in pancreatic cancer, there are also some lncRNAs which are down-regulated in pancreatic cancer. LncRNA growth arrest-specific 5 was markedly down-regulated in pancreatic cancer tissues and cancer cell lines, and involved in cell proliferation and cell cycle regulation. The mechanism may be partially explained by its negative regulation of CDK6 expression[71]. A novel lncRNA called ENST00000480739 was significantly downregulated in pancreatic cancerous tissues compared to adjacent non-cancerous tissues, and the ENST00000480739 expression level was negatively correlated with tumor TNM stages and poor overall survival of patient with pancreatic cancer[72].

MiRNAS IN PANCREATIC CANCER

Mounting evidence has shown the involvement of deregulation and aberrant expression of miRNAs in the carcinogenesis of various organs, including the pancreas. Although the understanding of miRNAs expression profile in pancreatic cancer has been improving significantly, the role of these miRNAs in pancreatic cancer tumorigenesis and progression is only fractionally documented[73-77]. MiRNAs dysregulated in pancreatic cancer can be classified into oncogenic miRNAs and tumor suppressor miRNAs in relation to their function in carcinogenic processes. A number of important miRNA candidates that might be clinically relevant in the management of pancreatic cancer are listed in Table 3.

Table 3 Selected microRNAs in pancreatic cancer.
MiRNAExpressionRoleTarget genesBiological significanceClinical significance
miR-21UpOPTEN, EGFR, HER2/neu, PDCD4, Bcl2, TIMP2, TIMP3Proliferation and cell divisionGem chemosensitivity, Biomarker, Prognosis, Potential target for treatment
miR-221/222UpOCDKN1B, PUMA, PTEN, BimCell cycle progressionGem chemosensitivity, Biomarker for diagnosis, Prognosis, potential target for treatment
miR-192UpOSIP1, cell cycle regulatory genesCell proliferation and migration, reduced apoptosis and cell cycle progressionBiomarker for diagnosis (serum)
miR-424-5pUpOSOCS6Cell proliferation and migrationPrognosis
miR-208UpOCDH1EMTN
miR-155UpOTP53INP1ApoptosisBiomarker for diagnosis, Prognosis
miR-10a/bUpOHOXB8, HOXA1Invasivity and metastasisGem chemosensitivity, Prognosis
miR-196a-2/196UpOHOXB8, ANXA1, HMGA2NBiomarker for diagnosis, Prognosis
miR-375UpOPDK1, 14-3-3zetaCell proliferation and apoptosisBiomarker for diagnosis, Potential target for treatment
miR-210UpOHOXA1, FGFRL1, HOXA9, COX10, E2F3, RAD52, ACVR1B, MNTRegulating the interaction between pancreatic cancer cells and stellate cellsBiomarker for diagnosis, Prognosis
miR-301aUpOBim, NKRFProliferation and metastasisPrognosis
miR-421UpODPANCREATIC CANCER4/SmadCell proliferation and colony formationPotential target for treatment
miR-15/16UpOAnti-apoptotic genes: bcl2l1, naip5, fgfr2 and mybl2Apoptosis and tumor angiogenesisPotential target for treatment
miR-124DownTSRAC1Cell proliferation, invasion and metastasisN
miR-203DownTSBIRC5, CAV1Cell cycle progression, apoptosis, EMTIndicator of the metastatic potential, potential target for treatment
miR-143DownTSGET1, GET2, KRASCell proliferation, invasion and metastasisN
miR126,let-7DownTSE2F2, c-Myc, KRAS, MAPK, STAT3Cell proliferationChemosensitivity, potential target for treatment
miR-34a/bDownTSTP53, Bcl-2Apoptosis, DNA repair, cell cycle progression and angiogenesisPrognosis, Chemosensitivity
miR-200 familyDownTSEP300, ZEB1, SIPI1EMTPrognosis, Chemosensitivity
miR-146aDownTSIRAK-1, EGFRInvasivityPotential target for treatment
miR-96DownTSKRAS, AKTTumor growth and invasionPotential target for treatment
Oncogenic miRNAs

Several studies revealed that distinct cell- and tissue-specific miRNA expression was found in pancreatic cancer specimens compared with normal cells and tissues[78-81]. Hong et al[82] analyzed the miRNA profile in pancreatic cancer tissues and cell lines in comparison with normal tissues and cells, and found 8 aberrantly overexpressed miRNAs (miR-196a, miR-190, miR-186, miR-221, miR-222, miR-200b, miR-15b and miR-95). Interestingly, it has been found that miR-196a plays a vital role in pancreatic cancer. High expression of miR-196a had good potential in predicting poor survival of patients with pancreatic cancer [median, 14.3 mo (95%CI: 12.4-16.2 mo) vs 26.5 mo (95%CI: 23.4-29.6 mo)][83]. miR-196a may have promoted pancreatic cancer proliferation and migration by targeting nuclear factor kappa-B-inhibitor alpha (NFKBIA), which is a metastasis-related protein[84]. Several studies have reported that miR-221 may function as a proto-oncogene. Up-regulation of miR-221 is known to contribute to the proliferation, invasion, inhibition of apoptosis and chemoresistance of pancreatic cancer. Its target genes include MMP 2 and MMP 9, which were closely related to cell migration and invasion, and were regarded as markers of cancer invasion and metastasis[85]. Another target gene of miR-221 was PTEN, a tumor suppressor that negatively regulates cell proliferation and survival by antagonizing phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling[86].

As mentioned above, tissue miRNAs play an important role in pancreatic cancer initiation and development. In addition, circulating miRNAs may also contribute to pancreatic cancer progression. For example, circulating miR-200a/b were elevated and could be potential markers for early diagnosis and treatment monitoring of pancreatic cancer. One of its downstream targets was SIP1, whose protein product suppressed E-cadherin expression and contributed to EMT[87]. One study reported that combinations of 7 miRNA (miR-20a, miR-21, miR-24, miR-25, miR-99a, miR-185, and miR-191) served as great biomarkers and showed high sensitivity and specificity for distinguishing various stages of pancreatic cancer from cancer-free controls and also from chronic pancreatitis[88]. Among the 7 miRNAs, miR-21 levels in serum were significantly associated with overall pancreatic cancer survival[88,89]. Furthermore, overexpression of miR-21 contributed to gemcitabine chemoresistance and enhanced malignancy of pancreatic cancer cells via p85α, the PI3K regulatory subunit[90]. MiR-21 is also known to be involved in other cancers[91-94]. It played an oncogenic role by targeting FOXO1 and activating the PI3K/AKT pathway in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma[95]. In addition, miR-21 may promote intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma proliferation in vitro and in vivo, probably by targeting PTPN14 and PTEN[96].

Furthermore, miRNAs have an important role in cancer stem cells (CSCs) function[97-99]. MiR-34 was down-regulated in pancreatic cancer, and miR-34 restoration led to a significant reduction of CD44+/CD133+ cells and inhibition of tumor sphere growth in pancreatic cancer, implying that miR-34 may be involved in pancreatic CSC self-renewal[100]. Moreover, MiR-34 may be involved in CSC activity via direct modulation of downstream targets Bcl-2 and Notch[101]. MiR-200a was significantly down-regulated in pancreatic CSCs (PCSCs) compared with their counterpart control, PANC-1 cells. Artificial overexpression of miR-200a in the PCSCs resulted in up-regulation of the epithelial marker E-cadherin and down-regulation of mesenchymal markers ZEB1, N-cadherin and Vimentin, suggesting that the loss of miR-200a was critical for the acquisition of EMT characteristics and that the overexpression of miR-200a could reverse the EMT phenotype of PCSCs[102]. The miR-17-92 family can negatively regulate and control PCSCs features by targeting genes involved in the activated Nodal/Activin/TGF-β signaling pathway or by targeting ALK4, p21 and transcription factor T-box 3[103]. Taken together, these data show that miRNAs play a crucial role in PCSCs biological function.

Tumor suppressor miRNAs

In contrast, there are also tumor suppressor miRNAs, which were often found to be deregulated in pancreatic cancer. They inhibit the initiation and progression of pancreatic cancer by negatively regulating cell cycle and proliferation (miR-124[103], miR-203[104], miR-143[105], miR-126[106], and let-7[107]), or facilitating apoptosis and DNA repair (miR-34a[108-110], miR-203[104], miR-150 and miR-630[111]), or decreasing the capacity of tumor invasion and metastasis (miR-200a/b/c[112,113], miR-141[114], miR-429[115], miR-203[116], miR-143[105], and miR-146[117]). Recently, a study reported that miR-615-5p was significantly downregulated in pancreatic cancer compared with adjacent normal tissues, and could inhibit proliferation, migration and invasion of pancreatic cancer cell lines by targeting AKT2[118]. Another well-known tumor suppressor miRNA is the let-7 family. Let-7 was found downregulated in a number of pancreatic cancer cell lines. Reexpression of let-7 (including let-7a and let-7f) retarded the migratory potential of pancreatic cancer, and decreased the expression of Vimentin and Fibronectin. Furthermore, STAT3 phosphorylation and STAT3-activated gene expression were inhibited with upregulation of let-7[119]. Similarly, miR-1181 was also found underexpressed in pancreatic cancer. Clinically, decreased expression of miR-1181 was found to be associated with poorer overall survival and disease-free survival. Experimentally, miR-1181 contributed to CSC-like phenotypes by gain-of-function and loss-of-function assay, and it was demonstrated that SOX2 and STAT3 expression were inhibited directly by miR-1181[120].

NCRNAS AS DIAGNOSTICS AND PROGNOSTICS FOR PANCREATIC CANCER

The development of diagnostic and prognostic pancreatic cancer biomarkers has the potential to detect disease at an early stage, improve disease management, and reduce mortality due to this disease. CA19-9 is widely used for the diagnosis and prognosis of pancreatic cancer, although its limitations are well understood. The expression levels of miR-16, miR-21, miR-210, miR-155, miR-20a, miR-25 and miR-196a in the plasma of patients with pancreatic cancer were higher than those of the normal controls. Of which, miR-21 had the highest diagnostic value when used as a diagnostic marker alone. An additional study confirmed that the diagnostic sensitivity and accuracy could be improved when miR-16, miR-155 and miR-25 were combined with CA19-9, respectively[121,122]. The concentration of miR-18a in plasma/serum was reported to be much higher than that of healthy volunteers[123]. Besides in plasma, miRNA-10b, -30c, -106b, -155, and -212 in bile have also been reported to provide excellent accuracy for distinguishing pancreatic cancer patients from others[124].

Intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm (IPMN) is a precursor cystic lesion to pancreatic cancer. In one study[125], researchers evaluated 700 miRNAs in PanIN lesions and found 35 miRNAs dysregulated in PanIN-3, including overexpression of let-7f/g, -18a, -15b, -21, -29a/b/c, -31, -93, -95, miR-101, -103, -106b, -146a, -155, -182, -190, -193b, -194, -196b, -200a/b, -203, -222, -338-3p, -429, and 486-3p, but no or weak expression of miR-107, -139-3p/5p, -216a/b, -217, -218 and -483-5p in PanIN-3. Of which, miR-196b emerged as the most useful biomarker in discriminating PanIN-3 lesions. In addition, miR-138, miR-195, miR-204, miR-216a, miR-217, miR-218, miR-802, miR-155, miR-214, miR-26a, miR-30b, miR-31, and miR-125 were enriched in the cyst fluids derived from invasive carcinomas. Cyst fluid miRNomes may develop as informative early detection biomarkers of pancreatic cancer developing from pancreatic cystic lesions[126].

Besides the implication of miRNAs for diagnosis, some specific miRNAs can predict the outcome of pancreatic cancer. It was demonstrated that low expression of miR-200c in tumor tissue and high expression of miR-200c in serum were associated with worse survival in pancreatic cancer[127]. In addition, miR-221 and miR-222 were known to target the tumor suppressor gene coding for cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27Kip1, and their role was established in pancreatic cancer as key inhibitors of cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, and sensitization of cells to gemcitabine. Up-regulation of these two miRNAs is often related with poor patient survival rate[128]. However, these studies of miRNAs as diagnostic and prognostic factors involved small sample sets; thus, validation in larger, independent cohorts is required prior to application of miRNA assays in a clinical setting[129].

NCRNAS AS PANCREATIC CANCER THERAPEUTICS

One of the major drawbacks and obstacles in pancreatic cancer therapy is chemoresistance, which is largely attributed to genetic mutations, epigenetic modifications and complex alterations within the tumor microenvironment. Over the past years, it has emerged that therapeutic resistance is, at least in part, mediated by CSCs and EMT, and some miRNAs are promising targets to tackle chemoresistance in pancreatic cancer[130]. Nucleic acid-based therapeutic strategies are those in which a chemically modified nucleic acid is used to restore the normal activity of miRNAs. Here, nucleic acid-based strategies are classified into two main categories: (1) miRNA replacement therapy; and (2) anti-miRNA therapy.

MiRNA replacement therapy

MiRNA replacement therapy is one of nucleic acid-based therapeutic strategies. MiRNA replacement studies have been conducted in some animal models of cancer. However, this strategy has not yet been performed in pancreatic cancer cells. A replacement strategy seems to be a promising methodology for developing tools to replace malfunctioning tumor suppressor miRNAs and overcoming pancreatic cancer. MiRNA mimic delivery is best tolerated by non-tumorigenic cells because the pathways they activate or suppress have already been activated or suppressed by endogenous miRNAs, and normal cells can regulate the pathway while cancer cells can not[131]. Let-7 was the first miRNA in humans to be discovered and is regularly expressed in normal pancreatic cells, and its down-regulation plays a critical role in renewal and metastasis of pancreatic cancer cells. Restoration of lost let-7 expression in gemcitabine-resistant pancreatic cancer cells inhibits cellular proliferation, restores epithelial phenotype, and renders the tumor cells sensitive to gemcitabine[132]. Furthermore, down-regulated miRNAs miR-143, miR-148b, and miR-141 can be restored through miRNA replacement therapy[133,134].

Anti-miRNA therapy

Anti-miRNA therapy is another strategy of nucleic acid-based therapeutics. There are three ways to remove overexpressed oncomiRNAs: (1) genetic knockout (not discussed in this review); (2) antisense oligonucleotides (ASO) (antagomiRs); and (3) miRNAs sponges. AntagomiRs are miRNA antagonists that affect miRNA-related pathways by binding and blocking oncogenic miRNAs. These nucleic acid antagonists are one of the known approaches to inhibit oncogenic miRNAs, and therefore they may be an effective way to treat cancer[135]. AntagomiRs are chemically modified ASO containing 2’-O-methylation of ribose residues, 3’-conjugated cholesterol residues, and partial replacement of phosphodiester bonds through phosphorothioate linkages, wherein one of the non-bridging oxygens is replaced by sulfur[136]. In the case of antagomiR therapy, miR-21 and miR-221 are well-known oncogenic miRNAs overexpressed in pancreatic cancer that can be knocked-down using ASO. ASOs for miR-21 and miR-221 increase the expression levels of their targets (PTEN, RECK, and CDKN1B), reduce proliferation, and increase apoptosis of pancreatic cancer cells. ASOs also sensitize pancreatic cancer cells to gemcitabine and generate synergistic antitumor effects[137,138]. Recently, the development of the human serum albumin-1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-snglycero-3-ethylphosphocholine:cholesterol/antimiRNA oligonucleotides (+/-) (4/1) nanosystem exhibited the ability to efficiently deliver anti-miRNA oligonucleotides targeting the overexpressed miRNAs including miR-21, miR-221, miR-222, and miR-10 in pancreatic cancer cells, promoting the almost complete abolition of the expression of these miRNAs. Silencing of these miRNAs resulted in a significant increase in the levels of their targets (PTEN and p27Kip1).

Sponge RNA contains complementary binding sites to miRNAs of interest. MiRNA sponges are comprised of transgenic cells and block all other miRNAs from the same family. Sponges bind to seed sequences of certain miRNAs that contain 2-7 specific sequential nucleotides. MiRNA sponges have multiple binding sites (usually 4-16). Both RNA polymerase II and III promoters have been used to transcribe miRNA sponges. However, transcripts of RNA polymerase II promoters are more stable due to their 5’ caps and 3’ polyadenylated tails[139]. MiR-103a-3p is a notable miRNA in that it is evolutionarily conserved and involved in regulating multiple cellular processes such as cell division, cellular metabolism, and angiogenesis[140,141]. The dysregulation of miR-103a-3p has been associated with many human diseases including several cancers, Alzheimer’s disease, and diabetes. It has been shown that more than 50% of miR-103a-3p activity is reduced by miR-103a-3p sponges[142]. However, RNA sponges contain several seed sequences that may bind to other ncRNAs as well as mRNAs. Therefore, the safety of miRNA therapy needs to be fully elucidated to ensure that other important metabolic pathways are not affected.

Small-molecule drugs

In contrast to nucleic acid-based strategies, the expression of miRNAs can also be modulated by drugs. A number of agents, including isoflavone and 3,3-diindolylmethane, have been shown to alter expression of miR-200 and the let-7 family in gemcitabine-resistant cancer cells[143]. Curcumin, one of the polyphenols isolated from plants such as Curcuma longa, has been shown to induce miR-7. This induction inhibits cell growth, migration, and invasion. The apoptotic effects of curcumin appear to be mediated by down-regulating SET8 via miR-7 upregulation[144]. As a potent anti-cancer natural product, curcumin also down-regulates miR-21 and up-regulates miR-200, thereby improving gemcitabine sensitivity via the induction of PTEN[145]. Flavonoids are another group of polyphenolic compounds reported to have anti-oxidant and anti-cancer effects. Genisteins are flavonoids affecting the ER (anti-estrogenic effects) and can be found in soybeans. It has been reported that genistein treatment in pancreatic cancer cells upregulates miR-34a[146] and downregulates miR-27, and miR-223[147,148].

CONCLUSION

NcRNAs have undoubtedly become one of the “hot” spots in modern biological and biomedical research. As ncRNAs can be efficiently targeted by stable ASO, this approach may be explored to target specific regulatory ncRNAs to understand their biological functions and action mechanisms and to develop novel strategies for disease intervention. Differential expression of ncRNAs is now a recognized trait of pancreatic carcinogenesis. However, the functional role of many of these molecules unearthed during profiling studies remains undetermined. Relatively speaking, biomarker studies into pancreatic cancer ncRNAs are in their infancy. Further work is needed to establish the role of distinguishing between free-circulating ncRNAs, those bound to Argonaute proteins and circulating microvesicle-encapsulated ncRNAs. The therapeutic applications of ncRNAs in pancreatic cancer are still in a formative stage and require extensive investigation in vitro and in animal models before their true potential can be realized.

Footnotes

P- Reviewer: Chen RF, Gonzalez-Perez RR, Husain K S- Editor: Yu J L- Editor: Webster JR E- Editor: Ma S

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