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Copyright ©The Author(s) 2016. Published by Baishideng Publishing Group Inc. All rights reserved.
World J Gastroenterol. Jan 7, 2016; 22(1): 50-71
Published online Jan 7, 2016. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v22.i1.50
Metabolic derivatives of alcohol and the molecular culprits of fibro-hepatocarcinogenesis: Allies or enemies?
Alex Boye, Yu-Hong Zou, Yan Yang
Alex Boye, Yan Yang, Department of Pharmacology and Institute of Natural Medicine, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, Anhui Province, China
Alex Boye, Department of Medical Laboratory Science, College of Allied Health Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast 25064, Ghana
Yu-Hong Zou, Department of Biology, School of Science, Center for Regenerative Biology and Medicine, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN 46202, United States
Author contributions: Boye A wrote the manuscript; Boye A, Zou YH and Yang Y conceived the idea, retrieved information and proof-read the first draft of the manuscript; Boye A, Zou YH and Yang Y reviewed and edited the final manuscript for important intellectual content.
Supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China, No. 81374012 and No. 81573652.
Conflict-of-interest statement: The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest relevant to this article.
Open-Access: This article is an open-access article which was selected by an in-house editor and fully peer-reviewed by external reviewers. It is distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited and the use is non-commercial. See: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/
Correspondence to: Yan Yang, MD, PhD, Professor, Department of Pharmacology and Institute of Natural Medicine, Anhui Medical University, Meishan Road, Hefei 230032, Anhui Province, China. yangyan@ahmu.edu.cn
Telephone: +86-551-65161133
Received: April 28, 2015
Peer-review started: May 6, 2015
First decision: September 29, 2015
Revised: October 12, 2015
Accepted: November 19, 2015
Article in press: November 19, 2015
Published online: January 7, 2016
Abstract

Chronic intake of alcohol undoubtedly overwhelms the structural and functional capacity of the liver by initiating complex pathological events characterized by steatosis, steatohepatitis, hepatic fibrosis and cirrhosis. Subsequently, these initial pathological events are sustained and ushered into a more complex and progressive liver disease, increasing the risk of fibro-hepatocarcinogenesis. These coordinated pathological events mainly result from buildup of toxic metabolic derivatives of alcohol including but not limited to acetaldehyde (AA), malondialdehyde (MDA), CYP2E1-generated reactive oxygen species, alcohol-induced gut-derived lipopolysaccharide, AA/MDA protein and DNA adducts. The metabolic derivatives of alcohol together with other comorbidity factors, including hepatitis B and C viral infections, dysregulated iron metabolism, abuse of antibiotics, schistosomiasis, toxic drug metabolites, autoimmune disease and other non-specific factors, have been shown to underlie liver diseases. In view of the multiple etiology of liver diseases, attempts to delineate the mechanism by which each etiological factor causes liver disease has always proved cumbersome if not impossible. In the case of alcoholic liver disease (ALD), it is even more cumbersome and complicated as a result of the many toxic metabolic derivatives of alcohol with their varying liver-specific toxicities. In spite of all these hurdles, researchers and experts in hepatology have strived to expand knowledge and scientific discourse, particularly on ALD and its associated complications through the medium of scientific research, reviews and commentaries. Nonetheless, the molecular mechanisms underpinning ALD, particularly those underlying toxic effects of metabolic derivatives of alcohol on parenchymal and non-parenchymal hepatic cells leading to increased risk of alcohol-induced fibro-hepatocarcinogenesis, are still incompletely elucidated. In this review, we examined published scientific findings on how alcohol and its metabolic derivatives mount cellular attack on each hepatic cell and the underlying molecular mechanisms leading to disruption of core hepatic homeostatic functions which probably set the stage for the initiation and progression of ALD to fibro-hepatocarcinogenesis. We also brought to sharp focus, the complex and integrative role of transforming growth factor beta/small mothers against decapentaplegic/plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 and the mitogen activated protein kinase signaling nexus as well as their cross-signaling with toll-like receptor-mediated gut-dependent signaling pathways implicated in ALD and fibro-hepatocarcinogenesis. Looking into the future, it is hoped that these deliberations may stimulate new research directions on this topic and shape not only therapeutic approaches but also models for studying ALD and fibro-hepatocarcinogenesis.

Keywords: Alcoholic hepatitis, Lipopolysaccharide, Fibro-hepatocarcinogenesis, Mitogen activated protein kinase, Transforming growth factor beta, Small mother against decapentaplegic

Core tip: Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) leading to fibro-hepatocarcinogenesis may show a bidirectional origin within the gut-liver axis. We bring to light the subtle reprogramming of the gut epithelium, gut microbiome and hepatic cells by both metabolic derivatives and unstable chemical species secondary to chronic alcohol intake, and their concerted role in ALD. We specifically highlight the integrative role of transforming growth factor-β/Smad, which synchronizes inflammatory and fibrogenic signals within the gut-liver axis. The gut may provide a less invasive option not only for prognosis and treatment of ALD but also for future research. We suggest that therapies for ALD and fibro-hepatocarcinogenesis should focus on restoring the gut microbiome.