Background, techniques, applications, current trends, and future directions of minimally invasive endoscopic spine surgery: A review of literature

Figure 1 Direct endoscopic view from tubular/retractor-based camera that provides a two-dimensional image on a screen with digital zoom.

Figure 2 Minimally invasive surgery endoscopic technique. A: Endoscopic cannula inserted in posterior lumbar region; B: Tubular/retractor-based setup where the camera can be inserted into the body through a channel called a working channel.

Figure 3 Direct two-dimensional endoscopic view (top of image as anatomically medial, bottom as lateral, left as cranial, and right as caudal) with dura mater exposed. A: Disc has compressed nerve ventrally; B: Disc irrigated, exposed, and removed to alleviate nerve compression; and C: Nerve has been decompressed.