Maternal low protein diet and fetal programming of lean type 2 diabetes

Table 1 Summary of key animal models used to investigate the maternal low protein associated insulin resistance and glucose intolerance

Animals	Diet regimen	Age of pups	Sex	Observations	Ref.
Sprague-Dawley rats	6% protein, -12 to 43 d	12 wk	Females	Sirt3 dysfunction in skeletal muscle	[138]
Sprague-Dawley rats	10% protein, 2 to 21 d	Newborn	Males	Increased Igf gene expression	[148]
Sprague-Dawley rats	8% protein, 1 to 43 d	17 wk	Males	Lower fasting insulin and HOMA	[85]
Wistar rats	6% protein, 1 to 21 d	11 wk	Females	Insulin resistance and glucose Intolerance	[103]
Wistar rats	6% protein, 1 to 43 d	3 wk	Both	Compromised β-cell structure and function	[163]
Wistar rats	7% protein, 1 to 120 d	16 wk	Females	Higher glucose tolerance and insulin responsiveness	[98]
Wistar rats	8% protein, 1 to 43 d	12 wk	Both	Impaired gluconeogenesis, glucose handling and liver structure	[141]
Wistar rats	8% protein, 1 to 43 d	11 wk	Females	Insulin resistance and glucose Intolerance	[190]
Wistar rats	8% protein, 1 to 21 d	12 wk	Males	Epigenetic regulation of Hnf4a in islets	[116]
Wistar rats	8% protein, 1 to 21 d	12 wk	Both	Altered mitochondrial function in islets	[72]
Wistar rats	8% protein, 1 to 21 d	12 wk	Both	Structural alterations and changes in glucokinase expression in liver	[141]
Wistar rats	8% protein, 1 to 21 d	Fetal Day 21.5	Both	Altered IGF axis and proliferative capacity of liver	[140]
Wistar rats	9% protein, 1 to 20 d	Fetal Day 20	Both	Defective hepatic glucose homeostasis	[69]
Wistar rats	10% protein, 1 to 21 d	4 wk	Both	Impaired hepatic gene expression	[8,122]
Wistar rats	10% protein, 1 to 43 d	15 wk	Both	Modified glucose metabolism and insulin resistance	[71]
C57BL/6J mice	9% protein, 1 to 39 d	8 wk	Both	Impaired glucose metabolism, miR-15b up-regulation	[63]
C57BL/6J mice	8% protein, 1 to 21 d	3 wk	Both	Altered PPAR signaling, insulin resistance and glucose Intolerance	[87]
C57BL/6J mice	8% protein, 1 to 19 d	Newborn	Both	Altered mitochondrial genes expression in liver and skeletal muscle	[89]
Mice	8% protein, 1 to 40 d	21 wk	Both	Increases abdominal adiposity and glucose intolerance	[70]
Pig	6% protein, -18 to 113 d	Newborn	Both	Affected mitochondrial OXPHOS and glucose-6-phosphatase in liver	[73,74]