Role of gut microbiota via the gut-liver-brain axis in digestive diseases

Table 1 Common treatments based on microbiota-gut-liver-brain axis

Treatment	Mechanism	Example	Treated diseases	Ref.
Probiotics	Reduce depression and alter brain activity	Bifidobacterium longum subsp. Longum NCC3001	Irritable bowel syndrome	[36]
	Regulate immunity and diminish inflammation	VSL#3	Ulcerative colitis	[61]
	Modulate gut microbiota, restore the intestinal barrier function and prevent mesenteric artery endothelial dysfunction, as well as enhance bile acids excretion,	LGG	Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; hepatic encephalopathy; alcoholic liver disease	[115,141,168]
	Reduce ammonia levels by reducing gut microbiota imbalances	Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium species	Hepatic encephalopathy	[143]
FMT	Modulate gut microbiota, reduce endotoxin and inflammation factors, as well as reduce neuroinflammation		Irritable bowel syndrome; inflammatory bowel disease; non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; alcoholic liver disease; hepatic encephalopathy	[119,148]
Antibiotic	Modulate gut microbiota and their end-products, as well as improve the cognitive function	Rifaximin	Hepatic encephalopathy; irritable bowel syndrome	[18,37]
Psychotherapy	Improve mental health	CBT	Irritable bowel syndrome; inflammatory bowel disease	[38,39]
Acupuncture and moxibustion	Regulate gut microbiota, repair mucosal tissue damage and improve gut mucosal immunity	Moxibustion	Irritable bowel syndrome; inflammatory bowel disease	[45,66]
	Improve the balance of the HPA axis and anxiety behaviors	EA and MB	Functional dyspepsia	[68]
	Regulate gut-brain peptides and promote the gastric empty rate	Herbal cake-separated moxibustion	Alcoholic liver disease	[96]
Herbaceous Medications	Improve gastrointestinal function,	DA-9701 (Motilitone)	Functional dyspepsia	[88]
	Increase the production of ghrelin, cholecystokinin and vasoactive intestinal peptides	Xiangsha Liujunzi Decoction	Functional dyspepsia	[89]
	Increase the levels of motilin, gastrin and gastric emptying rate	XiaoErFuPi granules	Functional dyspepsia	[90]
	Regulate gut microbiota and promote the gastric empty rate	MA	Functional dyspepsia	[91]
	Treat both gastrointestinal and psychological symptoms	Rikkunshito	Functional dyspepsia	[92]
	Regulate gut mucosal barrier, lipid metabolism and liver function	Dachaihu decoction	Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease	[122]
Polyphenol	Modulate gut microbiota, reduce inflammation factors and alleviate the pathological injuries,	Raw Bowl Tea polyphenol	Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease	[126]
	Change the metabolism of bile acids	Green tea polyphenol	Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease	[127]

LGG: Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG; CBT: Cognitive behavior therapy; EA: Electroacupuncture; MB: Moxibustion; HPA: Hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal; MA: Magnoloside A.