Upper gastrointestinal sensory-motor dysfunction in diabetes mellitus

Table 1 Motility disorders of upper GI tract in DM

Organ	Motility disorder
Esophagus	Amplitude[88,89] and number[46,90] of peristaltic contractions↑
	Number of spontaneous and non-propagated contractions↑[45]
	Amplitude of lower esophageal sphincter pressure↓[88]
	Multi-peaked contractions[78,79]
Stomach	Antral IMMC↓[87]
	Post-prandial antral activity and the number of antral contractions↓[91]
	Pyloric dysmotility[92]
Small intestine	Frequency and amplitude of the antropyloroduodenal contractions↑↓[93]
	Duration of MMC cycle↑[85]
	Early recurrence of the MMC and clusters of contractile activity[94]

Table 2 Acute hyperglycemia and upper GI disorders

Motility disorder	Sensory disorder
Peristaltic wave duration[98]↑	Amplitude of the cortical evoked
Peristaltic velocity in the distal	brain potentials to moderate
part of the esophagus↓[103]	esophageal distension↑[98]
Pressure of the low esophageal	Perception during proximal
sphincter↓[103]	gastric distension in healthy subjects
Gastric emptying of both solids	both in the fasted state and during
and nutrient liquids↓[104]	intra-duodenal lipid infusion↑[95]
Motility index and propagation	Influencing the postprandial
of duodenal and jejunal waves↓[84]	fullness in IDDM patients↑[105]
Cycle length of inter-digestive
motor activity in the fasted state↓[56]
Small intestinal transit↓[71]
Proximal duodenal pressure waves↓[104]

Table 3 Morphological and biomechanical changes of small intestine in DM

Morphological change	Biomechanical change
Intestinal weight, length, and weight per unit length↑	Opening angle and residual strain in duodenum↓
Surface area of mucosa↑	Opening angle and residual
Number of goblet cells per villus↑	strain in jejunum and ileum↑ Circumferential stiffness of
Smooth muscle mass↑	the intestinal wall↑
Different layer thickness↑	Longitudinal stiffness of the
Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) ↑	intestinal wall↑ Stress relaxation of small
interstitial cells of Cajal volume↓	intestine↓