Published online Aug 28, 2012. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v18.i32.4412
Revised: August 13, 2012
Accepted: August 16, 2012
Published online: August 28, 2012
AIM: To study possible decrease in prevalence of Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection in the Czech Republic within a 10-year period.
METHODS: A total of 22 centres entered the study. The catchment areas of these centres covered cities and towns with more than 20 000 inhabitants, smaller towns (≤ 20 000 inhabitants) with surrounding villages and rural areas, and were spread over the whole country, corresponding well to the geographical distribution of the Czech population. A total of 1 837 subjects (aged 5-98 years) took part in the study, randomly selected out of 38 147 people from the general population. H. pylori infection was investigated by means of a 13C-urea breath test. Breath samples in duplicates were analysed using isotope ratio mass spectrometry. The cut-off point was 3.5. Social and demographic characteristics were based on data from self-completed questionnaires.
RESULTS: The overall prevalence of H. pylori infection was 23.5% (430/1826), and 4.8% (20/420) in children aged 15 or less. There was no statistically significant difference in prevalence between males (24.3%; 208/857) and females (22.9%, 222/969, P = 0.494). H. pylori infection was strongly associated with higher age, among subjects aged 55+ years, prevalence of H. pylori infection was 39.8% (252/633, P < 0.001). The highest prevalence of H. pylori infection was found among persons aged 55-64 years (43.9%, 97/221) and 75+ years (37.9%, 58/153). Among study subjects aged 15+ years, prevalence of H. pylori infection was significantly increased in those with lowest education (odds risk 3.19, 95% CI 1.87-5.47). Compared to never married (14.1%), the prevalence of H. pylori infection was statistically significantly higher among married (35.4%, 246/694, P < 0.001), divorced (36.8%, 49/133, P < 0.001) and widowed study subjects (40.2%, 45/112, P < 0.001), both in minimally and fully adjusted analysis. There was no significant difference in the prevalence of H. pylori infection between married and widowed subjects (35.4%, 246/694 vs 40.2%, 45/112, P = 0.389). There was little variation in smoking prevalence across categories of smoking and there was no evidence of an increased risk of H. pylori infection among current or past smokers in our data (odds risk 1.04 with 95% CI 0.78-1.40 for current smokers; odds ratio 0.83 with 95% CI 0.60-1.16 for former smokers). The current prevalence of H. pylori in 2011 was significantly lower compared to the prevalence reported from identical geographical areas in 2001 (23.5% vs 41.7%, P < 0.001).
CONCLUSION: The overall prevalence of H. pylori infection in the general population has fallen substantially in the Czech Republic over the past 10 years.
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Citation: Bureš J, Kopáčová M, Koupil I, Seifert B, Škodová Fendrichová M, Špirková J, Voříšek V, Rejchrt S, Douda T, Král N, Tachecí I. Significant decrease in prevalence of
Helicobacter pylori in the Czech Republic. World J Gastroenterol 2012; 18(32): 4412-4418 - URL: https://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/full/v18/i32/4412.htm
- DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v18.i32.4412
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection is still the most common human infection worldwide. It is estimated that 50%-80% of the population is infected[1-3]. The prevalence in developed countries of Europe is 10%-30% (with an increase of 1%-3% for each age decade). Up to 95% of the adult population is infected in developing countries[4-8].
Our group accomplished a large multi-centre epidemiologic study on the prevalence of H. pylori and dyspepsia in the Czech Republic, a Central European country, in 2001[9-11]. The Project was executed on a total of 2509 persons aged 5-100 years, randomly selected out of 30 012 subjects from the general population. H. pylori infection was investigated by means of 13C-urea breath test. The overall prevalence of H. pylori was 41.7% in 2001[9]. Meanwhile, several concerns have been raised about the possible decrease of H. pylori prevalence in developed countries. The aim of our current multi-centre prospective study was to evaluate the prevalence of H. pylori infection in the Czech Republic using the same methods in a representative sample of general unselected population from the same geographical areas 10 years later.
A total of 22 centres entered the study. They included 15 centres of general practitioners for adults and 7 for children and adolescents. These centres covered cities and towns with more than 20 000 inhabitants (10 centres), smaller towns (≤ 20 000 inhabitants) with surrounding villages (9 centres) and rural areas (3 centres), and were spread over the whole country, corresponding well to the geographical distribution of the Czech population. A total of 1837 subjects (aged 5-98 years) took part in the study, randomly selected out of 38 147 registered males and females in this age range.
Urea breath tests were performed in the morning after overnight fasting by means of 13C-urea breath test[12]. Citric acid solution (3 g dissolved in 150 mL of still water) was given initially as a test drink. Five min later two baseline exhaled breath samples were collected into 20-mL vacutainers using a straw. Thereafter all persons ingested 75 mg 13C-urea (Helicobacter Test INFAI, INFAI GmbH, Köln, Germany) dissolved in 50 mL of still water with 1 g citric acid (at time 0). Breath samples were collected in duplicates using a straw into 20-mL vacutainers after 30 min. Tubes with breath samples were sent to a single analytical centre by post and measured within a one-week period. Breath samples in duplicates were analysed using isotope ratio mass spectrometry (AP 2003, Analytical Precision Products, Cambridge, United Kingdom). The cut-off point was 3.5. Results of 13C-urea breath test for H. pylori status were obtained for 99.4% (1826/1837) of subjects.
Data were collected by self-completed questionnaires distributed to adults and parents of children aged 5-15 years. The questionnaire included information on place of residence in childhood, mother’s and father’s education, access to running warm water in childhood, crowding in childhood and number of siblings. Information on the study subjects’ current place of residence, education, marital status, self-reported socio-economic group and smoking habits was also collected in the questionnaire and was used in the analysis of determinants of H. pylori positivity in subjects aged above 15 years.
The study was approved by the University Ethics Committee. All participants received detailed written information about the Project in advance and signed written consent (parents on behalf of their children). For all data obtained, all personal identification information was deleted in compliance with the laws for the protection of confidentiality of the Czech Republic.
The data was analysed using STATA statistical software (StataCorp. 2011. Stata Statistical Software: Release 12, College Station, TX). Education was analysed in six categories (university, secondary, vocational higher and lower, elementary and students) and marital status in five categories (single, first time married, re-married, divorced and widowed). In the analysis, we used three categories of smoking (never smoker, past smoker and current smoker). Proportions were compared using Chi-square test and the relative risk of H. pylori infection was studied in logistic regression with adjustment for age, gender and other social variables. Multivariable analyses were restricted to subjects with non-missing data on the variables studied.
The overall prevalence of H. pylori infection was 23.5% (430/1826), and 4.8% (20/420) in children aged 15 or less. There was no statistically significant difference in prevalence between males (24.3%, 208/857) and females (22.9%, 222/969, P = 0.494). H. pylori infection was strongly associated with higher age (Table 1).
| Males | Females | Total | |
| Age (yr) | |||
| 5-14 | 188 (4.8) | 197 (5.1) | 385 (4.9) |
| 15-24 | 124 (10.5) | 151 (7.9) | 275 (9.1) |
| 25-34 | 97 (16.5) | 107 (13.1) | 204 (14.7) |
| 35-44 | 84 (30.9) | 79 (19.0) | 163 (25.1) |
| 45-54 | 73 (42.5) | 93 (34.4) | 166 (37.9) |
| 55-64 | 94 (42.5) | 127 (44.9) | 221 (43.9) |
| 65-74 | 122 (38.5) | 137 (36.5) | 259 (37.4) |
| ≥ 75 | 75 (34.7) | 78 (41.0) | 153 (37.9) |
Among study subjects aged above 15 years, prevalence of H. pylori infection was significantly increased in those with lowest education (Table 2). Compared to never married, the prevalence of H. pylori infection was statistically significantly higher among married and divorced study subjects, both in minimally and fully adjusted analyses (Table 2). There was little variation in smoking prevalence across categories of smoking and there was no evidence of an increased risk of H. pylori infection among current or past smokers in our data (Table 2).
| n | H. pylori (%) | OR1 (95% CI) | OR2 (95% CI) | |
| Education | ||||
| University | 351 | 25.6 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
| Secondary | 435 | 26.9 | 0.99 (0.71,1.38) | 1.02 (0.73,1.43) |
| Vocational (higher) | 66 | 31.8 | 1.31 (0.73,2.33) | 1.33 (0.74,2.39) |
| Vocational (lower) | 307 | 40.1 | 1.63 (1.16,2.29) | 1.68 (1.18,2.37) |
| Elementary | 80 | 53.7 | 2.84 (1.69,4.75) | 3.19 (1.87,5.47) |
| Studying | 188 | 8.0 | 0.51 (0.27,0.96) | 0.60 (0.31,1.16) |
| Marital status | ||||
| Never married | 488 | 14.1 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
| First time married | 566 | 34.8 | 1.75 (1.18,2.59) | 1.55 (1.03,2.33) |
| Re-married | 128 | 38.3 | 1.91 (1.15,3.20) | 1.77 (1.05,2.99) |
| Divorced | 133 | 36.8 | 1.88 (1.13,3.13) | 1.74 (1.03,2.92) |
| Widowed | 112 | 40.2 | 1.60 (0.88,2.92) | 1.20 (0.65,2.20) |
| Smoking | ||||
| Never smoker | 871 | 28.5 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
| Former smoker | 232 | 30.6 | 0.83 (0.60,1.16) | 0.78 (0.55,1.09) |
| Current smoker | 324 | 27.8 | 1.04 (0.78,1.40) | 0.84 (0.61,1.15) |
The current prevalence of H. pylori in 2011 was significantly lower compared to the prevalence reported from identical geographical areas in 2001 (23.5% vs 41.7%, P < 0.001).
Our multi-centre prospective study proved that the current prevalence of H. pylori in 2011 is significantly lower compared to the prevalence of identical geographical areas in 2001. Both our studies were based on a representative sample of the general population, covering large and small urban population as well as rural areas and using 13C-urea breath test as a gold standard for H. pylori diagnostics. Thus our results are reliable and trustworthy. The decline of H. pylori was found not only in overall prevalence but also in particular age decades. Explanation of this phenomenon is not easy and unequivocal. Although there are no strictly unimpeachable epidemiologic data available, the decrease of H. pylori prevalence probably already started in the Czech Republic in the late 1990’s[9]. It could be explained mostly by the relatively favourable and improving socio-economic conditions and standards of living together with falling fertility rates. In the same period, the age-standardised death rate from stomach cancer in the Czech Republic fell from 17.3/100 000 (in 1992) to 11.9/100 000 (2001) followed by further current decline to 8.7/100 000 (in 2010)[13]. Two large Czech seroprevalence studies found decreased H. pylori prevalence in the mid 2000’s among subjects screened for thyroid disease[14] and in patients with peptic ulcer disease, functional dyspepsia and gastro-oesophageal reflux disease[15].
Decrease in the prevalence of H. pylori infection was also reported in other former communist countries such as Estonia (in children from 42% in 1991 to 28% in 2002)[16], Slovakia (in adults from 52% in 1992 and 41% in 2002 to 35% in 2007)[17,18] and Russia (in children from 44% in 1995 to 13% in 2005)[19]. This decline in H. pylori prevalence was explained by the profound socio-economic changes after the fall of communist regimes.
However, significant decrease of the prevalence of H. pylori infection was also found in stable developed European countries like the Netherlands[20-22], Finland[23,24], the United Kingdom[25,26], Germany[27], Norway[28] and Denmark[29]. This decrease could not be explained only by the birth-cohort phenomenon either. In developed countries, spontaneous subsequent clearance of H. pylori infection seems to be common[30]. In Finland, decrease of prevalence of H. pylori infection is believed to be due to the “screen and treat” project[31,32]. The main explanation for the decrease in H. pylori prevalence cannot merely be wide use of antibiotics for various indications. The prevalence of H. pylori infection is significantly lower in patients with inflammatory bowel disease but not in those with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (despite of extensive antibiotic use)[33]. There was no difference in H. pylori prevalence in Crohn’s disease with or without previous treatment with sulfasalazine or antibiotics[34].
In our previous study, we did not find a birth-cohort phenomenon of H. pylori infection after the Second World War[35], in contrast to developed countries[8,36-41]. This could be explained by the great migration of population in former Czechoslovakia after the Second World War, forced unnatural collectivisation (in fact expropriation) of agriculture, equalisation of society and mostly low socio-economic status under the communist government[35]. den Hoed et al[42] found a new birth-cohort phenomenon of H. pylori infection in the Netherlands. They observed a decline in H. pylori prevalence in 6- to 8-year-old Dutch children from 19% in 1978 to 9% in 1993. The further prevalence of H. pylori in childhood has remained stable in the Netherlands from 1993 to 2005, suggesting a stabilisation of the previously decreasing trend in subsequent birth cohorts. This finding may reflect stabilisation in determinants such as family size, housing, and hygienic conditions (or offset by day care)[42].
Several interesting data came from other studies outside Europe. Decreased prevalence of H. pylori was also found for instance in the United States[43,44], China[45,46], Japan[47], South Korea[48] and Singapore[49]. After fifteen years, the prevalence of H. pylori infection among both children and adults in China remained significantly higher in areas with a high incidence of gastric cancer compared with that in areas with a low incidence of gastric cancer. H. pylori infection rates have decreased in the general Chinese population during recent years[50].
Poor standard of living, low socio-economic status, overcrowded families, low education of parents and smoking (in adults) are still major risk factors of H. pylori infection. Acquisition, chronic infection and possible spontaneous clearance of H. pylori are influenced by several other factors like ethnicity and genetic factors. Extensive broad use of antibiotics for different indications might be less important[9].
It is necessary to revive the so-called hygiene hypothesis[51]. It was suggested that with the higher hygiene standards in developed countries, people (especially raising children) are less exposed to helminths and this fact modulates development of the immune system (Th1/Th2 shift of CD4+ T-lymphocytes) and thereby increases the risk of several diseases like inflammatory bowel disease, bronchial asthma, food allergy and many others. The high prevalence of H. pylori and low rate of gastric cancer in Africa and some parts of Asia were called the “African or Asian (Indian) Enigma” and explained merely by the high prevalence of helminth infections[52]. Subsequent prospective studies found that no such dissociation existed[53]. Nowadays the “African Enigma” is considered to be a myth[54]. Nevertheless, hygiene theories should be considered in explanation of the gradual decline of H. pylori infection. Blaser and his group pointed out an inverse association between H. pylori infection and bronchial asthma[55-57], even though not confirmed by some others[58]. Sonnenberg et al[59] found low prevalence of H. pylori infection in inflammatory bowel disease.
Sýkora et al[60] published an excellent study on H. pylori among children in the Western Bohemian region (based on H. pylori stool antigen testing). The overall prevalence was 7.1% among 1545 children (aged 0-15 years; in the period 2003-2005). Breast-feeding was an important protective factor, H. pylori was found in 12.4% children that were not breast-fed. The prevalence of H. pylori was 80.8% among subjects living in children’s homes in this study[60].
Smoking is another independent risk factor for H. pylori infection in adults[61,62]. The lower number of current smokers in Europe might also influence the decline of H. pylori infection. In our previous study in 2001, smoking habits were strongly related to risk of H. pylori positivity in adults, men and women with lowest education and heavy smokers being at the highest risk of H. pylori infection[9]. Surprisingly, there was no evidence of an increased risk of H. pylori infection among current or past smokers in our present study. It is necessary to mention another interesting phenomenon: the decreased prevalence of H. pylori represents a prominent decline of CagA positive H. pylori strains[42]. Explanation for this finding still remains unclear.
However, several studies recently showed that the prevalence of H. pylori is also declining among children in developing countries like Uganda, Brazil and the Middle East region despite persisting poor hygiene, standard of living and low socio-economic conditions[5,6,63-65].
On top of all those aspects mentioned above, it is necessary to admit that the reasons for decline of H. pylori infection have not been fully clarified yet[66,67]. It is necessary to also consider the fundamental determinants of “modern times” that could cause gradual disappearance of H. pylori from the human microbiome[68-72].
In summary, the overall prevalence of H. pylori infection in the general population has fallen substantially in the Czech Republic over the past 10 years. This decrease can be explained mostly by the relatively favourable and improving socio-economic status and high standard of living conditions. However, it is necessary to also consider that both environmental factors and the human host create an unfavourable milieu responsible for the decline of H. pylori infection.
Our sincerest thanks go to all general practitioners and their staff. They performed some really great work in their respective centres. Project participants: Šárka Bílková, MD (Slaný), Pavel Brejník, MD (Kladno), Otto Herber, MD (Veltrusy), Petr Herle, MD (Praha 4), Otakar Ach-Hübner, MD, (Brno), Eva Charvátová, MD (Praha 4), Karel Janík, MD (Horní Bečva), Olga Kobesová MD (Praha 10), Tomáš Koudelka, MD (Počátky), Gréta Koudelková, MD (Žatec), Milada Kratochvílová, MD (Brno), Miloš Ponížil, MD (Hrušovany nad Jevišovkou), Assoc. Professor Bohumil Seifert, MD, Ph.D. (Praha 8), Helena Veselá, MD (Chýně), Norbert Král, MD (Praha 2), Jana Vojtíšková, MD (Praha 2), Ruth Adamová, MD (Čáslav), Romana Balatková, MD (Most), Irena Bumbová, MD (Kamenné Žehrovice), Jana Ponížilová, MD (Hrušovany nad Jevišovkou), Miroslava Šircová, MD (Slaný), Jarmila Seifertová, MD (Kladno) and Věra Ševčíková, MD (Praha 2).
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection is still the most common human infection worldwide. It is estimated that 50%-80% of the population is infected. The prevalence in developed countries of Europe is 10%-30%. Up to 95% of the adult population is infected in developing countries.
The authors accomplished a large multi-centre epidemiologic study on the prevalence of H. pylori and dyspepsia in the Czech Republic, a Central European country, in 2001. H. pylori infection was investigated by means of 13C-urea breath test. The overall prevalence of H. pylori was 41.7% in 2001. The aim of the current multi-centre prospective study was to evaluate the prevalence of H. pylori infection in the Czech Republic using the same methods in a representative sample of general unselected population from the same geographical areas 10 years later.
The current prevalence of H. pylori in 2011 was significantly lower compared to the prevalence of identical geographical areas in 2001 (23.5% vs 41.7%, P < 0.001).
This decrease can be explained mostly by the relatively favourable and improving socio-economic status and high standard of living conditions. However, it is necessary to also consider that both environmental factors and the human host create an unfavourable milieu responsible for the decline of H. pylori infection.
The paper aims at assessing the prevalence of H. pylori infection based on 13C urea-breath test in a large random sample of Czech population. The study results show that the prevalence is declining in comparison with a similar previous study from the same group. Potential reasons for this fall are considered in the discussion. The paper is interesting, scientifically sound and well written.
Peer reviewer: Fabio Pace, Professor, Division of Gastroenterology, L. Sacco University Hospital, University of Milan, Via G.B. Grassi, 74, 20157 Milano, Italy
S- Editor Gou SX L- Editor A E- Editor Xiong L
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