Gastrointestinal tract, its pathophysiology and in-vitro models: A “quick” reference guide to translational studies

Figure 6 Representation of the milestones and different techniques of tissue culturing through time. This diagram illustrates the evolution of intestine tissue culture and engineering platforms leading to the development of intestine-on-a-chip technology for personalized medicine. Pre-clinical background (top panel) showcases a progression from two-dimensional monocultures, three-dimensional co-cultures, bioreactors, three-dimensional printing, organoids, and tissue samples to intestine-on-a-chip and animal models, demonstrating a shift from high-throughput methods to increased physiological relevance. The bottom panel shows the intestine-on-a-chip, which integrates the microbiome, organoids, and extracellular matrix within a controlled flow channel, enabling intestine disease modelling. This facilitates therapy development, ultimately leading to personalized treatments tailored to individual patients. 2D: Two-dimensional; 3D: Three-dimensional.