Role of exosomes in metastasis and therapeutic resistance in esophageal cancer

Figure 3 The role of exosomes in esophageal cancer metastasis. Exosomes are associated with esophageal cancer (EC) metastasis by transferring their contents. The activation of several signaling pathways, including Wnt/β-catenin, PI3K/AKT and NF-κB signaling pathways, is closely to the exosome-mediated tumor microenvironment in EC. Exosomes can mediate immune suppression by downregulating antitumor cells (including NK cells, dendritic cells and M1 macrophages) and upregulating protumor cells (including myeloid-derived suppressor cells, Tregs, Bregs and M2 macrophages). Additionally, in primary EC sites, degradation of extracellular matrix and angiogenesis are also promoted by exosomes. MDSCs: Myeloid-derived suppressor cells; ECs: Esophageal cancers; DCs: Dendritic cells.