Exosomes: A new frontier under the spotlight for diagnosis and treatment of gastrointestinal diseases

Table 1 Exosomes as promising novel biomarkers for diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease and its progression

Exosomal component	Origins	Effects and mechanisms	Significance	Exosome structure effects
Baseline proteins in regular controls[16]	Intestinal epithelial cells	TGF-β1-dependent immunosuppression of T cells and dendritic cells	Treatment	Localization in intestinal tract and epithelial cell adhesion
PSMA7[30]	Saliva obtained from IBD patients	Higher expression in IBD patients when compared to normal	Diagnosis	Long distance transportation and protection
Annexin-1[31]	Serum of dextran sulfate sodium induced colitis in mice	Protection of epithelial cells anti-inflammatory	Diagnosis/treatment	Annexin-1 efficiency enhancement
Inflammatory proteins and mRNA[32]	Patients with IBD with a high endoscopic score (≥ 1)	Increased translation of IL-8 protein	Diagnosis/treatment	Membrane carrier
Acute phase proteins in IBD[34]	Serum of dextran sulfate sodium induced colitis in mice	Phosphorylation of p38 and ERK and production of tumor necrosis factor α resulting in macrophage activation	Diagnosis/treatment	Membrane carrier

IBD: Inflammatory bowel disease; PSMA7: Proteasomes subunit alpha type 7; IL-8: Interleukin 8; TGF: Transforming growth factor.