Although beneficial in acute and chronic pain management, the use of local anaesthetics is limited by its duration of action and the dose dependent adverse effects on the cardiac and central nervous system. Adjuvants or additives are often used with local anaesthetics for its synergistic effect by prolonging the duration of sensory-motor block and limiting the cumulative dose requirement of local anaesthetics. The armamentarium of local anesthetic adjuvants have evolved over time from classical opioids to a wide array of drugs spanning several groups and varying mechanisms of action. A large array of opioids ranging from morphine, fentanyl and sufentanyl to hydromorphone, buprenorphine and tramadol has been used with varying success. However, their use has been limited by their adverse effect like respiratory depression, nausea, vomiting and pruritus, especially with its neuraxial use. Epinephrine potentiates the local anesthetics by its antinociceptive properties mediated by alpha-2 adrenoreceptor activation along with its vasoconstrictive properties limiting the systemic absorption of local anesthetics. Alpha 2 adrenoreceptor antagonists like clonidine and dexmedetomidine are one of the most widely used class of local anesthetic adjuvants. Other drugs like steroids (dexamethasone), anti-inflammatory agents (parecoxib and lornoxicam), midazolam, ketamine, magnesium sulfate and neostigmine have also been used with mixed success. The concern regarding the safety profile of these adjuvants is due to its potential neurotoxicity and neurological complications which necessitate further research in this direction. Current research is directed towards a search for agents and techniques which would prolong local anaesthetic action without its deleterious effects. This includes novel approaches like use of charged molecules to produce local anaesthetic action (tonicaine and n butyl tetracaine), new age delivery mechanisms for prolonged bioavailability (liposomal, microspheres and cyclodextrin systems) and further studies with other drugs (adenosine, neuromuscular blockers, dextrans).

• Local anesthetics
• Adjuvants
• Neurotoxicity
• Opioids
• Ketamine
• Midazolam
• Alpha-2 adrenoreceptor antagonists

• Bupivacaine
• Cesarean section
• Magnesium sulfate
• Shivering

• Adult
• Analgesia, Epidural
• Analgesia, Obstetrical
• Analgesics, Opioid/adverse effects
• Analgesics, Opioid/therapeutic use
• Blood Pressure/drug effects
• Double-Blind Method
• Female
• Fentanyl/adverse effects
• Fentanyl/therapeutic use
• Fetal Monitoring
• Heart Rate/drug effects
• Heart Rate, Fetal/drug effects
• Humans
• Injections, Spinal
• Magnesium/administration & dosage
• Magnesium/adverse effects
• Magnesium/therapeutic use
• Pain Measurement
• Pregnancy
• Prospective Studies
• Pruritus/chemically induced

• Anesthesia, Spinal/methods
• Anesthetics/pharmacology
• Anesthetics, Local/pharmacology
• Animals
• Evoked Potentials, Somatosensory/drug effects
• Lidocaine/pharmacology
• Locomotion/drug effects
• Magnesium Sulfate/pharmacology
• Male
• Pain Measurement
• Rats
• Rats, Wistar
• Reaction Time/drug effects
• Vocalization, Animal/drug effects