Although using gloves in surgery dates back to the nineteenth century in modern medicine, it seems that the earliest evidence can be found in the Middle Ages.

It is a library research-based study on the book of Ḏaḫīre-ye Kāmele, written by Ḥakim Mohammad (Ḥakīm Muhammad), a Persian surgeon in the sixteenth century.

Ḥakim Mohammad advises the surgeons to use a sheath made of sheep testicle skin for their fingers when examining a wound and putting ointment and bandage on it to protect oneself from diseases that are transmitted through the skin and blood, such as people with wounds whose wounds are caused by smallpox, anthrax, leprosy and infectious wounds.

The words of Ḥakim Mohammad suggest a preliminary concept of using surgical gloves to prevent transmitted diseases, dating back to sixteenth century, 3 centuries before its use in modern era.

To quantify the effect of cataract surgery on cornea shape.

Patients undergoing cataract surgery with standardised 2.75 mm surgical incisions at 110 degrees with a side port at 50 degrees were included. Repeat biometric measurements were taken before surgery and at 6 weeks on both operated and unoperated fellow eyes. Data were transformed into Long's formalism for analysis. Device-specific measurement error was determined. The main outcome measure was the change in keratometry taking into account the change in keratometry of the unoperated fellow eye. Secondary outcome measures included the variability introduced due to location of the incision.

132 patients were included. The mean change in keratometry of the operated eye was -0.23@111/+0.21@21 (95% CI -1.43@122/+0.04@32 to +1.04@135/+0.30@45). The flattening effect of the surgical incision was greater and more variable than the steepening effect (p<0.01), particularly if the incision was in the flat meridian. Coupling, defined as ratio of the keratometric change in the preoperative meridians of K2 and K1, varied from 0.91 (SD 2.31) for eyes with an incision in the steep meridian, 0.75 (SD 1.81) for an incision in the flat meridian to 0.28 (SD 2.06) when the incision was made in a neutral meridian.

Cataract surgery has a slightly greater flattening than steepening effect on corneal shape. Although the effects are very small and variable with incomplete coupling, it is preferable to place the incision in the steep meridian. Greater emphasis, however, should be placed on eye-specific factors, such as biometry, or patient-related factors to optimise refractive outcomes.

Medicine-and specifically surgery and surgical ethics-have long been part of the history of science. Surgical ethics play a pivotal role in ensuring successful outcomes and maintaining the highest standards of patient care. It includes the ethics of surgeons, the responsibility of surgeons, surgical errors, and the competence of a surgeon. Many works have been written about surgery, including during Iran's Safavid period (1501 to 1736)-a period in which a surgeon needed to have a set of moral principles in addition to practical surgical skills. One of the most valuable is Dhakhīrıh Kāmılıh, written by military surgeon Hakim Mohammad in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In this work, Ḥakim Muhāmmad dedicates a chapter specifically to the topic of surgical ethics, aiming to provide moral and legal recommendations for surgeons in addition to explaining surgical techniques and methods. Some of these recommendations include improving surgical skills through observation and practical training, paying attention to hygiene to prevent the spread of infection, and giving patients hope for recovery. Dhakhīrıh Kāmılıh is a landmark text in the history of surgical ethics.

Medical knowledge during the medieval ages flourished under the influence of great scholars of the Islamic Golden age such as Ibn Sina (Latinized as Avicenna), Abu Bakr al-Razi (Rhazes), and Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas al-Zahrawi, known as Albucasis. Much has been written on al-Zahrawi's innovation in various disciplines of medicine and surgery. In this article, we focus for on the contributions of al-Zahrawi toward the treatment of neurological disorders in the surgical chapters of his medical encyclopedia, Kitab al-Tasrif (The Method of Medicine).

Excerpts from a modern copy of volume 30 of al-Zahrawi's Kitab al-Tasrif were reviewed and translated by the primary author from Arabic to English, to further provide specific details regarding his neurosurgical knowledge. In addition, a literature search was performed using PubMed and Google Scholar to review prior reports on al-Zahrawi's neurosurgical instructions.

In addition to what is described in the literature of al-Zahrawi's teachings in cranial and spine surgery, we provide insight into his diagnosis and management of cranial and spinal trauma, the devices he used, and prognostication of various traumatic injuries.

Al-Zahrawi was a renowned physician during the Islamic Golden age who made significant contributions to the diagnosis and treatment of neurological conditions, particularly cranial and spinal cord injuries. He developed innovative surgical techniques for trephination and spinal traction, which are still used in modern neurosurgery. His insights make him worthy of recognition as an important figure in the history of neurological surgery.

The period described in this chapter reflects activity prior to the establishment of surgical centers in Europe in the twelfth century. It is a kind of prologue to the reintroduction of high-quality surgical practice. Religious squabbles within Christianity led to European medicine and surgery, the principles of which were written in Greek, being transported eastwards into the region newly dominated by Islam. There the works were translated into Arabic and during three to four hundred years, the works were not only retained but were enriched by contributions from within Arab culture. This evolution naturally enough came to affect what happened next. However, one thing is clear and was even commented on as early as by Albucasis. The surgeon's respect and distinction within society had depreciated during the sojourn of medical science in the Islamic world, with physicians being regarded as distinctly superior beings. With regard to specific details related to opening the head there was broad consistency between the various authors all of whom seem to have been greatly influenced by Paul of Ægina. Thus, there is no mention of the crown trepan. Opening the skull was performed with the non-perforating trepans making small holes which were connected with chisels or lenticulars. The indication to do this was separation of the dura from the bone. Whether or not the sutures should be avoided when trepanning is not a topic mentioned in these writings. There was also no recommendation for prophylactic trepanation.

Surgery has deep historical roots. Rhazes (865-925 CE), a Persian physician, made a significant contribution to the development of medical sciences in the medieval era. Liber Almansoris is one of his significant works on medicine. This book is a medical textbook for medical students. It covers every aspect of the medical sciences. This article discusses Rhazes' contribution to surgery, based on Liber Almansoris.

This study examines Rhazes' contribution to surgery, based on his book, Liber Almansoris.

Rhazes's Liber Almansoris contains a chapter (seventh chapter) on orthopedics, which includes surgical approaches. This chapter also describes surgical procedures for traumas and skull fractures. In other chapters, he also recommends surgical options for treating certain complications when discussing different treatment methods.

Although Rhazes mentioned surgical procedures as a medical treatment method, he did not include a separate chapter on surgery. This strategy can be found in his other medical works, such as Liber Continens or Al-Hawi. It appears that Rhazes adheres to the Galenic (Greek) perspective on surgery. In this context, surgery is not an independent major but a method that a physician can employ as needed. It differs from an alternative approach in that era that adheres to ancient Persian perspectives, which identified surgery as a major like other medical sciences disciplines.

Al-Halabi is an intriguing ophthalmologist who invented numerous surgical instruments for treating various eye diseases. The illustrations of such instruments in his invaluable book "Kitab Al-Kafi fi Al-Kuhl" reflect his willingness to teach. Moreover, he included in his book a magnificent illustration of the anatomical structure of the eye. The book reflects Al-Halabi's medical practice and teaching and shows several advanced medical techniques and tools. His invaluable comments reflect his deep experimental observations in the field of ophthalmology. The current article provides proof that Al-Halabi is one of our early biomedical engineers from more than 800 years ago. Al-Halabi represents a ring in the chain of biomedical engineering history. His surgical instruments represent the biomechanics field. Al-Halabi should be acknowledged among the biomedical engineering students for his various contributions in the field of surgical instruments.

We present and discuss the previously unrecognized evidence for the possible introduction of cataract extraction by aspiration into modern Western medicine on March 26, 1815, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, by surgeon Philip Syng Physick. On this date, he successfully extracted a cataract by suction through a tube, according to newspaper reports written by the patient, an attorney who sought a patent on the suction device. Aspects of the patient's account are confirmed by supporting evidence from the medical community and by a cataract instrument set attributed to Physick, which includes a cannula attached to a syringe. The evidence suggests that Physick was the first to reintroduce cataract aspiration to Western medicine.

In one?s career, it is good to look back at the predecessors in the field. Biomedical engineering history is full of hidden treasures, one of whom is Al-Zahrawi, a Muslim surgeon who had a wide reputation in Europe during the Middle Ages. Herein, besides recalling that he was a surgeon, the intent is to spotlight his talent in biomedical engineering. Important contributions in surgical instruments come up readily in a review of his work, contradicting the view some have maintained of him as a mere compiler. He was a true inventor, creating many surgical instruments that were not known in the Greco-Roman era. Quite early, he produced contributions influencing surgical procedures in Europe from the 14th to the 18th centuries. As a problem solver, he was aware of anatomical and physiological problems, and he moved through design, methods of manufacturing, and practical applications. The illustrations of such instruments in his encyclopedic work, Al-Tasrif, reflect his willingness to teach.

Abū'l-Faraj ibn Ya'qūb ibn Isḥāq Ibn al-Quff al-Karakī (1233-1286 AD), best known as Ibn al-Quff in the West, was a 13(th) century Arab physician-surgeon. During his lifetime, Ibn al-Quff made some important contributions to the art of healing. He authored several books and commentaries in the field of medicine, in particular surgery. This paper aims to review Ibn al-Quff's life, career, and contributions to medical science.

The dislocation of the crystalline lens or couching technique was the predominant procedure to surgically remove cataracts until the 18th century A.D. However, in the Middle Ages, some Arab physicians tried to aspirate the opaque lens by means of a glass tube following a paracentesis. Some literary sources attributed the origins of this technique to Antyllus of Alexandria, a Greek surgeon who lived in the 2nd century A.D. in the Roman Empire. Nevertheless, this statement remains unclear and is probably the consequence of posterior interpretations or incorrect translations of the manuscripts. In recent years, the discovery of the hollow needles from Montbellet (France) and Viladamat (Spain), in archaeological settlements dated between the 1st century and 3rd century A.D., has reopened the possibility of cataract extraction as an option in the surgical management of soft cataracts in the antiquity. In any case, these findings are exceptional, and thus, probably this technique was not widely practised and very likely disparaged by the medical community.

Colonial medicine is a thriving field of study in the history of nineteenth- and twentieth-century medicine. Medicine can be used as a lens to view colonialism in action and as a way to critique colonialism. This article argues that key debates and ideas from that modern field can fruitfully be applied to the Middle Ages, especially for the early empires of Spain and Portugal (mid-fourteenth to mid-sixteenth centuries). The article identifies key modern debates, explores approaches to colonization and colonialism in the Middle Ages and discusses how medieval and modern medicine and healthcare could be compared using colonial and postcolonial discourses. The article ends with three case studies of healthcare encounters in Madeira, Granada and Hispaniola at the end of the fifteenth century.

Colorectal surgery has its roots in the early civilisations and its development followed a complex pathway never disjoined from the social and cultural environment where it took place.

The most relevant historical sources have been evaluated.

A comprehensive review of the history of colorectal surgery is presented, from the ancient Egyptian culture to the modern achievements. The development of surgery of colon, rectum and anus is reported with particular reference to the social environment and history; as the development of colorectal surgery parallels the occurrence of human historical events, the study of the former cannot be disjoined from the latter.

Study and knowledge of the history of medicine--and, in particular, of colorectal surgery for those interested in this particular subject--is a privileged way to understand who we are nowadays and where we come from.

An influential Persian scholar of the Islamic Golden Age of Medicine (from the ninth to the twelfth centuries AD), Ibn-e Sina (AD 980-1037), also known by the Latinized name Avicenna, is best remembered for his contributions to various aspects of medicine, particularly surgery. In fact, the art of surgery was a major focus of his attention and practice, and one to which he devoted several chapters of his main medical encyclopedia, Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb (The Canon of Medicine). This article presents a brief review of Avicenna's life, introduce his textbook of medicine, and present his significant contributions to the science of surgery.

Femtosecond laser is a promising new technology for the field of cataract surgery. Early studies have investigated many factors including visual outcomes, complication rates, and financial overhead costs. This review analyzes the most recent clinical studies of visual and refractive outcomes in laser cataract surgery, including those that make comparisons to outcomes found in conventional phacoemulsification cataract surgery.

As femtosecond laser cataract surgery has only emerged recently, there is limited literature available regarding visual outcomes. Most but not all existing studies showed no statistically significant difference in visual acuity and mean absolute refractive error between laser and conventional cataract surgery cases.

The majority of studies examined found visual acuity or refractive outcomes of femtosecond laser to be statistically equivalent to those of conventional phacoemulsification cataract surgery. However, the learning curve involved with laser use may account for these early results, which could potentially improve as better technology and surgical techniques are developed. Further long-term outcomes studies are necessary to more accurately evaluate the benefits and drawbacks of femtosecond laser cataract surgery.

Femtosecond laser-assisted cataract surgery (FLACS) represents a potential paradigm shift in cataract surgery, but it is not without controversy. Advocates of the technology herald FLACS as a revolution that promises superior outcomes and an improved safety profile for patients. Conversely, detractors point to the large financial costs involved and claim that similar results are achievable with conventional small-incision phacoemulsification. This review provides a balanced and comprehensive account of the development of FLACS since its inception. It explains the physiology and mechanics underlying the technology, and critically reviews the outcomes and implications of initial studies. The benefits and limitations of using femtosecond laser accuracy to create corneal incisions, anterior capsulotomy, and lens fragmentation are explored, with reference to the main platforms, which currently offer FLACS. Economic considerations are discussed, in addition to the practicalities associated with the implementation of FLACS in a healthcare setting. The influence on surgical training and skills is considered and possible future applications of the technology introduced. While in its infancy, FLACS sets out the exciting possibility of a new level of precision in cataract surgery. However, further work in the form of large scale, phase 3 randomised controlled trials are required to demonstrate whether its theoretical benefits are significant in practice and worthy of the necessary huge financial investment and system overhaul. Whether it gains widespread acceptance is likely to be influenced by a complex interplay of scientific and socio-economic factors in years to come.

Europe in the Middle Ages had descended into a dark period, and none more so than in the field of medicine. The rich heritage of the pagan Greeks had largely been ignored or forgotten by medieval Europe, and instead it was the early Arabist world that embraced and developed the Hellenistic medical teachings, emerging not only as guardians of the classical learning still existent, but also as pioneers and innovators, restricted only by the development in the associated fields. The Kahhal (), or Oculist or Eye Specialist, had a privileged place in royal households, especially during the Abbasid period, in contrast to the time of Galen, whose writings referred to ophthalmologists in a rather derogatory manner. This elevated standing in the medical profession allowed Arabist scholars to cultivate remarkably erudite techniques and exceptional texts, which were used until very recently.

Physicians in ancient Persia played an important role in the development of medicine in the medieval era. One of the most influential figures of this era was Abu Ali Sina or Ibn Sina, known as Avicenna in the western world. The author of more than 200 books on medicine and philosophy, Avicenna followed and further expanded on the tradition of western philosophy and medicine introduced by Aristotle, Hippocrates and Galen. Few researchers have looked into the different medical issues in his best known work, the Canon of Medicine, particularly with regard to ophthalmology. In this analysis, Avicenna's views on and contributions to the diagnosis and treatment of cataracts in his Canon were elucidated.

We first reviewed an electronic copy of the Canon and then reviewed other important sources in traditional medicine including the Kamel-al-Sanaeh, Al-Havi (Continents) and Zakhireh-kharazmshahi, available in the Avicenna Special Traditional Medicine Library of Shiraz University of Medical Sciences. We also searched Medline, Embase, Scopus, Iranmedex and Science Iranian Database (SID) with these keywords: "traditional medicine," "Avicenna," "cataract", "Canon", "history", "ophthalmology" and "eye disorders".

According to the Canon, nozul-al-maa or cataract is an obstructive disease in which external moisture accumulates between the aqueous humor and the corneal membrane and prevents images from entering the eye. Avicenna classified cataracts on the basis of size, density and color. According to size, he identified two types of cataracts including complete and partial obstruction. According to the Canon, surgical intervention was necessary only for certain indications. Avicenna believed that opacity in the initial stages of cataract could be diminished by medicines and foods, and described several medicines for cataracts. He believed that surgery should be postponed until the liquid accumulation stopped, and the cataract reached its mature state. After surgery, according to Avicenna, the patient should avoid headache-inducing situations because headaches could lead to edema of the layers of the eye. He further emphasized that the patient's psychological status played an important role in the success of surgery.

An important aspect of Avicenna's contribution to the medical management of cataracts was that he believed they could be cured by medication and nutrition in their early stages without the need for surgery. He also considered the patient's mental status as an important factor contributing to the postoperative prognosis. Our review of Avicenna's writings on eye disorders in the Canon of Medicine suggests that he had a rigorous approach to the diagnosis and management of patients suffering from eye disorders.

Directive 2004/24/EC sets the frame for the herbal trade in Europe emphasizing the need of the botanical characterization of herbal substances intended for human consumption. Thus, the aim of the present study is to survey and identify taxonomically the herbs sold in the market of Cyprus and to document and evaluate their uses. Moreover, the relationship of the nowadays market to the local ethnobotanical tradition, as well as to other eastern Mediterranean markets (i.e. Greece, Israel, Jordan, Turkey) is also traced.

Herbs sold in 15 shops scattered in three major cities of Cyprus were surveyed. Data concerning their uses were collected through interviews with the herbal traders and studied quantitatively by the use of ethnobotanical indices (informant consensus factor, use value, relative importance value, fidelity level) and statistical tests (Spearman's correlation coefficient, Kruskal-Wallis test, paired-sample t-test). Comparisons to published information concerning other eastern Mediterranean markets were performed by multivariate tests (Ward's hierarchical cluster).

A total number of 57 taxa were surveyed from 15 selected shops, out of which 32 are cultivated, 14 are collected from the wild and 11 are imported. The highest Informant Consensus Factors were presented by the neuropsychiatric (0.78), gastrointestinal (0.76) and respiratory ailments (0.71). The comparison of our results to published information has shown that 40 of the traded taxa have also been used traditionally, while a considerable number of herbs are also found in the markets of Greece and Turkey (35 and 29 taxa, respectively); a lower number of the taxa traded, is found in the markets of the Middle East.

The nowadays herbal trade in Cyprus is still linked to the local ethnobotanical legacy. Moreover the similarities between the Cypriot herbal market and the markets of Greece and Turkey are more prominent than those between Cyprus and the Middle East, reflecting the cultural exchanges among the three neighbouring countries.

This article lists the medical works written by Ibn Bājja, overviews those that have come down to us and studies the super-commentary of Galen's commentary to Hippocrates' "Aphorisms (Sharḥ fī al-Fuṣūl)". This text shows a deep influence of al-Fārābī, namely in a conception of medical experience which stems from the latter's construal of experience (tajriba) as the inductive process described by Aristotle in "Posterior Analytics" which brings the premises of demonstration. On this basis, Ibn Bājja advocated for a less scholastic, more empiric medicine, and his claim was echoed by Ibn Rushd. There are some similarities between Ibn Bājja's text and Ibn Rushd's "K. al-Kulliyyāt fī al-ṭibb" which suggests that the latter had read "Sharḥ fī al-Fuṣūl". This work gives moreover some evidence that human dissection could have been performed during Ibn Bājja's time.

We investigated urinary bladder stone, surgical tools, and procedures in urologic sections of textbooks of Abul-Qasim Khalaf Ibn Abbas Alzahrawi (Albucasis) and Serefeddin Sabuncuoglu. In addition, we compared the relation of their textbooks with urologic surgery.

Al-Tasreef Liman Aajaz Aan Al-Taaleef (Al-Tasreef), a surgery textbook written by Alzahrawi (who lived in Endulus between 930 and 1013) and Cerrahiyyetu'l-Haniyye, written by Sabuncuoglu (who lived in Turkey between 1385 and 1470) were evaluated with regard to urinary bladder stone and surgical instruments.

The textbooks give information about urinary bladder stones. They include definitions of diseases, etiologies, and surgical techniques, and describe surgical tools. Cerrahiyyetu'l Haniyye is a colorful miniaturized textbook.

The urinary bladder stone section in Cerrahiyyetu'l Haniyye is the translation of Al-Tasreef with some additional information and illustrations. Surgical tools and procedures described by the two physicians have reached to our century. Tools and procedures invented by Alzahrawi come to the present day in similar or developed styles.

The Arabian conquests during and after the 7th century led to a spread of Islam as well as the consequential influence of theology on health through the teachings of the Qur'an (Koran). Although traditional medicine was widely accepted and used, the character of early aggrandisement of Arabic medicine involved a facility for adapting and absorbing Graeco-Roman knowledge. The translation schools and libraries, famous in both the East and West, preserved and expanded the knowledge acquired. European academic learning owed much to the Arabs. Information came through Spain to Italy, France and, later on, England. The founding of hospitals, whilst not an Arab initiative, received a fillip from the religious prescriptions for care of the sick. The Military Orders developed specialist institutions for the sick, probably as a result of what they saw during their sojourn in the Middle East. The legacy of Arabic medical care is still with us today and deserves understanding and greater appreciation.