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Zheng X, Sun C. Differentiation and integration: The addressee perspective-taking strategy in three-party conversation. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2025; 255:104908. [PMID: 40088564 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.104908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2024] [Revised: 02/26/2025] [Accepted: 03/11/2025] [Indexed: 03/17/2025] Open
Abstract
In conversations, people take the perspectives of others when engaging in referential understanding. Previous studies have primarily focused on dialogues between two participants. However, as the number of conversational partners increases, the perspective-taking strategies may change. This study specifically investigated a situation in which the addressee faces two speakers who take turns giving referential instructions. In Experiment 1, the perspectives of Speaker 1 and the addressee participants were consistent, while the perspectives of Speaker 2 and the addressee participants were inconsistent. In Experiment 2, the perspectives of both speakers were consistent but differed from the addressee's perspective. The results showed that, in Experiment 1, participants distinguished between the perspectives of the two speakers when interpreting noun reference, but no difference was found in Experiment 2. However, when comparing the results of Experiments 1 and 2, it was found that, despite the perspective of Speaker 2 remaining unchanged, participants in Experiment 1 were more egocentric than in Experiment 2 when interpreting Speaker 2's discourse. The pattern of strategic change was aligned with the interpretation of Speaker 1. This suggests that participants, to some extent, integrate the perspectives of both speakers. The results were further discussed based on the consideration of their partner's audience design strategies, use of a "Grounding by Proxy" strategy, or the calculation of a probabilistic weight of different perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaobei Zheng
- College of International Studies, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Chao Sun
- School of Chinese as a Second Language, Peking University, Beijing, China.
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Zheng X, Sun C. Understanding perspective-taking in multiparty conversations: insights from Mandarin nouns. Front Psychol 2025; 16:1499538. [PMID: 39931284 PMCID: PMC11808026 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1499538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2024] [Accepted: 01/14/2025] [Indexed: 02/13/2025] Open
Abstract
Individuals frequently adopt others' perspectives both when interpreting language and when formulating their own responses in conversation. This experiment tested how participants used perspective information to resolve references for bare nouns in Mandarin. Specifically, it explored whether, when faced with two interlocutors, participants distinguished between each individual's perspective or considered both as a whole. Using a classical referential game, the study manipulated the visual perspectives of two partners. In Experiment 1, both speakers had the same seating direction and visual field, and the results showed that participants equally took their perspectives into account above chance levels, providing a baseline finding for referential resolution of Mandarin bare nouns in perspective-taking studies. In Experiment 2, both speakers had the same seating direction but one of them shared the larger portion of visual field with the participants. The results showed that participants took the perspectives of the two speakers independently, while also comparing the perspectives of both interlocutors to facilitate quicker and more accurate referential resolution. These findings demonstrate that perspective-taking is a complex and dynamic process, providing evidence for the study of perspective-taking in Mandarin and contributing insights into comprehension processing in multiparty conversations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaobei Zheng
- College of International Studies, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Chao Sun
- School of Chinese as a Second Language, Peking University, Beijing, China
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Wang JJ, Zhao L, Alegado J, Webb J, Wright J, Apperly IA. Remembering visual and linguistic common ground in shared history. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2024; 77:2244-2255. [PMID: 38752526 PMCID: PMC11529134 DOI: 10.1177/17470218241256651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Revised: 11/05/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/01/2024]
Abstract
Successful communication requires speakers and listeners to refer to information in their common ground. Shared history is one of the bases for common ground, as information from a communicative episode in the past can be referred to in future communication. However, to draw upon shared history, communicative partners need to have an accurate memory record that they can refer to. The memory mechanism for shared history is poorly understood. The current study investigated the ways in which memory for shared history is prioritised. Two experiments presented a referential communication task followed by a surprise recognition memory task, with the former task serving as an episode of shared history. Experiment 1 revealed superior memory for information that was both seen in the communicators' common ground and referred to, followed by information that was seen but not referred to, and finally by information privileged to the participants. Experiment 2 provided a replication of Experiment 1 and further demonstrated that these co-presence effects are not dependent on the presence of a speaker with a different perspective to the participant.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Jessica Wang
- Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
| | - Lin Zhao
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, UK
| | - Justine Alegado
- Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
| | - Joseph Webb
- Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
| | - James Wright
- Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
| | - Ian A Apperly
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, UK
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Secora K. The role of speech-language pathologists in supporting theory of mind through literacy-based activities. JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION DISORDERS 2024; 111:106449. [PMID: 38945089 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcomdis.2024.106449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Revised: 04/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/26/2024] [Indexed: 07/02/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE This tutorial discusses the importance of speech-language pathologists (SLPs) supporting individuals with language disorders in their understanding of others' cognitive and affective states (theory of mind, ToM), with a special consideration given to applying these suggestions with individuals who are neurodivergent. METHOD I motivate this tutorial by first reviewing the literature related to ToM and language abilities for various populations of individuals with language difficulties, highlighting the need for explicitly targeting the language-related skills that are thought to underlie ToM for individuals with language disorders. I next present concrete examples of how to support ToM through literacy-based activities. I follow this discussion with a short description of how these activities may be applied with individuals who are neurodivergent through concrete examples, such as how inclusion of neurodivergent characters in storybooks can aid in educating children about understanding others' perspectives. It further emphasizes the importance of discussing various types of mental and emotional states for individuals who share as well as differ in their neurotypes. CONCLUSIONS Language skills are an integral part of ToM abilities. SLPs play an important role in supporting clients' academic, literacy, and social outcomes and can support important perspective-taking skills through associated language/communication skills. The various skills that fall under the umbrella term 'theory of mind' can be appropriately incorporated into intervention and literacy-based tasks in a way that respects differences in neurotype while still building important language and communication skills for clients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen Secora
- Department of Theory and Practice in Teacher Education, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States.
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Yoon SO, Duff MC, Brown-Schmidt S. Keeping track of who knows what in multiparty conversation despite severe memory impairment. Neuropsychologia 2024; 194:108780. [PMID: 38159800 PMCID: PMC10878795 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2023.108780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Revised: 12/03/2023] [Accepted: 12/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Language use has long been understood to be tailored to the intended addressee, a process termed audience design. Audience design is reflected in multiple aspects of language use, including adjustments based on the addressee's knowledge about the topic at hand. In group settings, audience design depends on representations of multiple individuals, each of whom may have different knowledge about the conversational topic. A central question, then, concerns how these representations are encoded and retrieved in multiparty conversation where successful conversation requires keeping track of who knows what. In the present research, we probe the biological memory systems that are involved in this process of multiparty audience design. We present the results of two experiments that compare language use in persons with bilateral hippocampal damage and severe declarative memory impairment (amnesia), and demographically matched neurotypical comparison participants. Participants played a game in which they discussed abstract images with one partner in conversation, and then discussed the images again with the same partner or with a new partner in a three-party conversation. Neurotypical participants' language use reflected newly formed representations of which partner was familiar with which images. Participants with amnesia showed evidence of partner-specific audience design in multiparty conversation but it was attenuated, especially when success required rapid alternations between representations of common ground. The findings suggest partial independence of the formation and use of partner-specific representations from the hippocampal-dependent declarative memory system and highlight the unique contributions of the declarative memory system to flexible and dynamic language use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si On Yoon
- Department of Communicative Sciences and Disorders, New York University, USA.
| | - Melissa C Duff
- Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center USA
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Bovet V, Knutsen D, Fossard M. Direct and indirect linguistic measures of common ground in dialogue studies involving a matching task: A systematic review. Psychon Bull Rev 2024; 31:122-136. [PMID: 37582917 PMCID: PMC10867054 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-023-02359-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/17/2023]
Abstract
During dialogue, speakers attempt to adapt messages to their addressee appropriately by taking into consideration their common ground (i.e., all the information mutually known by the conversational partners) to ensure successful communication. Knowing and remembering what information is part of the common ground shared with a given partner and using it during dialogue are crucial skills for social interaction. It is therefore important to better understand how we can measure the use of common ground and to identify the potential associated psychological processes. In this context, a systematic review of the literature was performed to list the linguistic measures of common ground found in dialogue studies involving a matching task and to explore any evidence of cognitive and social mechanisms underlying common ground use in this specific experimental setting, particularly in normal aging and in neuropsychological studies. Out of the 23 articles included in this review, we found seven different linguistic measures of common ground that were classified as either a direct measure of common ground (i.e., measures directly performed on the referential content) or an indirect measure of common ground (i.e., measures assessing the general form of the discourse). This review supports the idea that both types of measures should systematically be used while assessing common ground because they may reflect different concepts underpinned by distinct psychological processes. Given the lack of evidence for the implication of other cognitive and social functions in common ground use in studies involving matching tasks, future research is warranted, particularly in the clinical field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Bovet
- Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines, Institut des Sciences logopédiques, University of Neuchâtel, CH-2000, Neuchâtel, Switzerland.
| | - Dominique Knutsen
- UMR 9193, CNRS, SCALab - Sciences Cognitives et Sciences Affectives, University of Lille, F-59000, Lille, France
| | - Marion Fossard
- Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines, Institut des Sciences logopédiques, University of Neuchâtel, CH-2000, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
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Heller D, Brown-Schmidt S. The Multiple Perspectives Theory of Mental States in Communication. Cogn Sci 2023; 47:e13322. [PMID: 37483115 DOI: 10.1111/cogs.13322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/02/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023]
Abstract
Inspired by early proposals in philosophy, dominant accounts of language posit a central role for mutual knowledge, either encoded directly in common ground, or approximated through other cognitive mechanisms. Using existing empirical evidence from language and memory, we challenge this tradition, arguing that mutual knowledge captures only a subset of the mental states needed to support communication. In a novel theoretical proposal, we argue for a cognitive architecture that includes separate, distinct representations of the self and other, and a cognitive process that compares these representations continuously during conversation, outputting both similarities and differences in perspective. Our theory accounts for existing data, interfaces with findings from other cognitive domains, and makes novel predictions about the role of perspective in language use. We term this new account the Multiple Perspectives Theory of mental states in communication.
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Greco C, Bagade D, Le DT, Bernardi R. She adapts to her student: An expert pragmatic speaker tailoring her referring expressions to the Layman listener. Front Artif Intell 2023; 6:1017204. [PMID: 36967832 PMCID: PMC10034353 DOI: 10.3389/frai.2023.1017204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Communication is a dynamic process through which interlocutors adapt to each other. In the development of conversational agents, this core aspect has been put aside for several years since the main challenge was to obtain conversational neural models able to produce utterances and dialogues that at least at the surface level are human-like. Now that this milestone has been achieved, the importance of paying attention to the dynamic and adaptive interactive aspects of language has been advocated in several position papers. In this paper, we focus on how a Speaker adapts to an interlocutor with different background knowledge. Our models undergo a pre-training phase, through which they acquire grounded knowledge by learning to describe an image, and an adaptive phase through which a Speaker and a Listener play a repeated reference game. Using a similar setting, previous studies focus on how conversational models create new conventions; we are interested, instead, in studying whether the Speaker learns from the Listener's mistakes to adapt to his background knowledge. We evaluate models based on Rational Speech Act (RSA), a likelihood loss, and a combination of the two. We show that RSA could indeed work as a backbone to drive the Speaker toward the Listener: in the combined model, apart from the improved Listener's accuracy, the language generated by the Speaker features the changes that signal adaptation to the Listener's background knowledge. Specifically, captions to unknown object categories contain more adjectives and less direct reference to the unknown objects.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Raffaella Bernardi
- CIMeC, University of Trento, Rovereto, TN, Italy
- DISI, University of Trento, Povo, TN, Italy
- *Correspondence: Raffaella Bernardi
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Liu Z, Paek EJ, Yoon SO, Casenhiser D, Zhou W, Zhao X. Detecting Alzheimer's Disease Using Natural Language Processing of Referential Communication Task Transcripts. J Alzheimers Dis 2022; 86:1385-1398. [PMID: 35213368 DOI: 10.3233/jad-215137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND People with Alzheimer's disease (AD) often demonstrate difficulties in discourse production. Referential communication tasks (RCTs) are used to examine a speaker's capability to select and verbally code the characteristics of an object in interactive conversation. OBJECTIVE In this study, we used contextualized word representations from Natural language processing (NLP) to evaluate how well RCTs are able to distinguish between people with AD and cognitively healthy older adults. METHODS We adapted machine learning techniques to analyze manually transcribed speech transcripts in an RCT from 28 older adults, including 12 with AD and 16 cognitively healthy older adults. Two approaches were applied to classify these speech transcript samples: 1) using clinically relevant linguistic features, 2) using machine learned representations derived by a state-of-art pretrained NLP transfer learning model, Bidirectional Encoder Representation from Transformer (BERT) based classification model. RESULTS The results demonstrated the superior performance of AD detection using a designed transfer learning NLP algorithm. Moreover, the analysis showed that transcripts of a single image yielded high accuracies in AD detection. CONCLUSION The results indicated that RCT may be useful as a diagnostic tool for AD, and that the task can be simplified to a subset of images without significant sacrifice to diagnostic accuracy, which can make RCT an easier and more practical tool for AD diagnosis. The results also demonstrate the potential of RCT as a tool to better understand cognitive deficits from the perspective of discourse production in people with AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziming Liu
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Biomedical Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Eun Jin Paek
- Department of Audiology and Speech Pathology, College of Health Professions, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Si On Yoon
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorder, University of Iowa, IA, USA
| | - Devin Casenhiser
- Department of Audiology and Speech Pathology, College of Health Professions, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Wenjun Zhou
- Department of Business Analytics and Statistics, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Xiaopeng Zhao
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Biomedical Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
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Steinmair D, Zervos K, Wong G, Löffler-Stastka H. Importance of communication in medical practice and medical education: An emphasis on empathy and attitudes and their possible influences. World J Psychiatry 2022; 12:323-337. [PMID: 35317334 PMCID: PMC8900587 DOI: 10.5498/wjp.v12.i2.323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Healthcare professionals need to be prepared to promote healthy lifestyles and care for patients. By focusing on what students should be able to perform one day as clinicians, we can bridge the gap between mere theoretical knowledge and its practical application. Gender aspects in clinical medicine also have to be considered when speaking of personalized medicine and learning curricula.
AIM To determine sets of intellectual, personal, social, and emotional abilities that comprise core qualifications in medicine for performing well in anamnesis-taking, in order to identify training needs.
METHODS An analysis of training clinicians’ conceptions with respect to optimal medical history taking was performed. The chosen study design also aimed to assess gender effects. Structured interviews with supervising clinicians were carried out in a descriptive study at the Medical University of Vienna. Results were analyzed by conducting a qualitative computer-assisted content analysis of the interviews. Inductive category formation was applied. The main questions posed to the supervisors dealt with (1) Observed competencies of students in medical history taking; and (2) The supervisor’s own conceptions of "ideal medical history taking".
RESULTS A total of 33 training clinicians (n = 33), engaged in supervising medical students according to the MedUni Vienna’s curriculum standards, agreed to be enrolled in the study and met inclusion criteria. The qualitative content analysis revealed the following themes relevant to taking an anamnesis: (1) Knowledge; (2) Soft skills (relationship-building abilities, trust, and attitude); (3) Methodical skills (structuring, precision, and completeness of information gathering); and (4) Environmental/contextual factors (language barrier, time pressure, interruptions). Overall, health care professionals consider empathy and attitude as critical features concerning the quality of medical history taking. When looking at physicians’ theoretical conceptions, more general practitioners and psychiatrists mentioned attitude and empathy in the context of "ideal medical history taking", with a higher percentage of females. With respect to observations of students’ history taking, a positive impact from attitude and empathy was mainly described by male health care professionals, whereas no predominance of specialty was found. Representatives of general medicine and internal medicine, when observing medical students, more often emphasized a negative impact on history taking when students lacked attitude or showed non-empathetic behavior; no gender-specific difference was detected for this finding.
CONCLUSION The analysis reveals that for clinicians engaged in medical student education, only a combination of skills, including adequate knowledge and methodical implementations, is supposed to guarantee acceptable performance. This study’s findings support the importance of concepts like relationship building, attitude, and empathy. However, there may be contextual factors in play as well, and transference of theoretical concepts into the clinical setting might prove challenging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dagmar Steinmair
- Department of Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna 1090, Austria
- Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences, Krems 3500, Austria
- Department of Ophtalmology, University Hospital St. Pölten, St. Pölten 3100, Austria
| | - Katharina Zervos
- Department of Internal Medicine I, KRH Klinikum Robert-Koch-Gehrden, Gehrden 30989, Germany
| | - Guoruey Wong
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Montréal, Montréal 2900, Québec, Canada
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Schillinger D, Duran ND, McNamara DS, Crossley SA, Balyan R, Karter AJ. Precision communication: Physicians' linguistic adaptation to patients' health literacy. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:eabj2836. [PMID: 34919437 PMCID: PMC8682984 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abj2836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Little quantitative research has explored which clinician skills and behaviors facilitate communication. Mutual understanding is especially challenging when patients have limited health literacy (HL). Two strategies hypothesized to improve communication include matching the complexity of language to patients’ HL (“universal tailoring”); or always using simple language (“universal precautions”). Through computational linguistic analysis of 237,126 email exchanges between dyads of 1094 physicians and 4331 English-speaking patients, we assessed matching (concordance/discordance) between physicians’ linguistic complexity and patients’ HL, and classified physicians’ communication strategies. Among low HL patients, discordance was associated with poor understanding (P = 0.046). Physicians’ “universal tailoring” strategy was associated with better understanding for all patients (P = 0.01), while “universal precautions” was not. There was an interaction between concordance and communication strategy (P = 0.021): The combination of dyadic concordance and “universal tailoring” eliminated HL-related disparities. Physicians’ ability to adapt communication to match their patients’ HL promotes shared understanding and equity. The ‘Precision Medicine’ construct should be expanded to include the domain of ‘Precision Communication.’
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Affiliation(s)
- Dean Schillinger
- UCSF Division of General Internal Medicine and Heath Communications Research Program at the Center for Vulnerable Populations, Zuckerberg San Francisco General Hospital and Trauma Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Division of Research, Kaiser Permanente Northern California, Oakland, CA, USA
| | - Nicholas D. Duran
- School of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ, USA
| | | | - Scott A. Crossley
- Department of Applied Linguistics/ESL, College of Arts and Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Renu Balyan
- Department of Mathematics, Computer and Information Science, State University of New York, Old Westbury, NY, USA
| | - Andrew J. Karter
- Division of Research, Kaiser Permanente Northern California, Oakland, CA, USA
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Galati A, Brennan SE. What is retained about common ground? Distinct effects of linguistic and visual co-presence. Cognition 2021; 215:104809. [PMID: 34274558 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Revised: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Common ground can be mutually established between conversational partners in several ways. We examined whether the modality (visual or linguistic) with which speakers share information with their conversational partners results in memory traces that affect subsequent references addressed to a particular partner. In 32 triads, directors arranged a set of tangram cards with one matcher and then with another, but in different modalities, sharing some cards only linguistically (by describing cards the matcher couldn't see), some only visually (by silently showing them), some both linguistically and visually, and others not at all. Then directors arranged the cards again in separate rounds with each matcher. The modality with which they previously established common ground about a particular card with a particular matcher (e.g., linguistically with one partner and visually with the other) affected subsequent referring: References to cards previously shared only visually included more idea units, words, and reconceptualizations than those shared only linguistically, which in turn included more idea units, words, and reconceptualizations than those shared both linguistically and visually. Moreover, speakers were able to tailor references to the same card appropriately to the distinct modality shared with each addressee. Such gradient, partner-specific adaptation during re-referring suggests that memory encodes rich-enough representations of multimodal shared experiences to effectively cue relevant constraints about the perceptual conditions under which speakers and addressees establish common ground.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexia Galati
- Department of Psychological Science, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA.
| | - Susan E Brennan
- Department of Psychology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
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Van Der Wege M, Jacobsen J, Magats N, Mansour CB, Park JH. Familiarity breeds overconfidence: Group membership and shared experience in the closeness-communication bias. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2020.104097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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14
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Turner C, Knutsen D. Audience Design in Collaborative Dialogue between Teachers and Students. DISCOURSE PROCESSES 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/0163853x.2021.1904768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Dominique Knutsen
- CNRS,UMR 9193, Sciences Cognitives et Sciences Affectives (SCALab), University of Lille, Lille, France
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15
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Paek EJ, Yoon SO. Partner-Specific Communication Deficits in Individuals With Alzheimer's Disease. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SPEECH-LANGUAGE PATHOLOGY 2021; 30:376-390. [PMID: 32585126 DOI: 10.1044/2020_ajslp-19-00094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Purpose Speakers adjust referential expressions to the listeners' knowledge while communicating, a phenomenon called "audience design." While individuals with Alzheimer's disease (AD) show difficulties in discourse production, it is unclear whether they exhibit preserved partner-specific audience design. The current study examined if individuals with AD demonstrate partner-specific audience design skills. Method Ten adults with mild-to-moderate AD and 12 healthy older adults performed a referential communication task with two experimenters (E1 and E2). At first, E1 and participants completed an image-sorting task, allowing them to establish shared labels. Then, during testing, both experimenters were present in the room, and participants described images to either E1 or E2 (randomly alternating). Analyses focused on the number of words participants used to describe each image and whether they reused shared labels. Results During testing, participants in both groups produced shorter descriptions when describing familiar images versus new images, demonstrating their ability to learn novel knowledge. When they described familiar images, healthy older adults modified their expressions depending on the current partner's knowledge, producing shorter expressions and more established labels for the knowledgeable partner (E1) versus the naïve partner (E2), but individuals with AD were less likely to do so. Conclusions The current study revealed that both individuals with AD and the control participants were able to acquire novel knowledge, but individuals with AD tended not to flexibly adjust expressions depending on the partner's knowledge state. Conversational inefficiency and difficulties observed in AD may, in part, stem from disrupted audience design skills.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun Jin Paek
- Department of Audiology and Speech Pathology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Knoxville
| | - Si On Yoon
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, The University of Iowa, Iowa City
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Abstract
How is human social intelligence engaged in the course of ordinary conversation? Standard models of conversation hold that language production and comprehension are guided by constant, rapid inferences about what other agents have in mind. However, the idea that mindreading is a pervasive feature of conversation is challenged by a large body of evidence suggesting that mental state attribution is slow and taxing, at least when it deals with propositional attitudes such as beliefs. Belief attributions involve contents that are decoupled from our own primary representation of reality; handling these contents has come to be seen as the signature of full-blown human mindreading. However, mindreading in cooperative communication does not necessarily demand decoupling. We argue for a theoretical and empirical turn towards "factive" forms of mentalizing here. In factive mentalizing, we monitor what others do or do not know, without generating decoupled representations. We propose a model of the representational, cognitive, and interactive components of factive mentalizing, a model that aims to explain efficient real-time monitoring of epistemic states in conversation. After laying out this account, we articulate a more limited set of conversational functions for nonfactive forms of mentalizing, including contexts of meta-linguistic repair, deception, and argumentation. We conclude with suggestions for further research into the roles played by factive versus nonfactive forms of mentalizing in conversation.
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Knutsen D, Le Bigot L. Estimating Each Other’s Memory Biases in Dialogue. DISCOURSE PROCESSES 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/0163853x.2020.1837541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dominique Knutsen
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 9193 - SCALab - Sciences Cognitives et Sciences Affectives, Lille, France
| | - Ludovic Le Bigot
- Université de Poitiers & Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CeRCA, UMR 7295), France
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18
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Knutsen D, Le Bigot L. The influence of conceptual (mis)match on collaborative referring in dialogue. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2020; 84:514-527. [PMID: 30047022 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-018-1060-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2017] [Accepted: 07/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
When two dialogue partners need to refer to something, they jointly negotiate which referring expression should be used. If needed, the chosen referring expression is then reused throughout the interaction, which potentially has a direct, positive impact on subsequent communication. The purpose of this study was to determine if the way in which the partners view, or conceptualise, the referent under discussion, affects referring expression negotiation and subsequent communication. A matching task was preceded by an individual task during which participants were required to describe their conceptualisations of abstract tangram pictures. The results revealed that participants found it more difficult to converge on single referring expression during the matching task when they initially held different conceptualisations of the pictures. This had a negative impact on the remainder of the task. These findings are discussed in light of the shared versus mutual knowledge distinction, highlighting how the former directly contributes to the formation of the latter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominique Knutsen
- Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester, CO4 3SQ, UK. .,Univ. Lille, CNRS, CHU Lille, UMR 9193 - SCALab - Sciences Cognitives et Sciences Affectives, F-59000, Lille, France.
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Salter G, Breheny R. Removing shared information improves 3- and 4-year-olds' performance on a change-of-location explicit false belief task. J Exp Child Psychol 2019; 187:104665. [PMID: 31409457 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2019.104665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2019] [Revised: 07/08/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The classic change-of-location explicit false belief task ends with a test question of the form "Where will the [agent] look for the [object]?" It has been proposed that by including mention of the target object, the question creates unwanted attention to the actual object location. A standard explanation is that children are biased to answer according to their own knowledge of reality. We proposed that mention of the target object brings attention to the reality location via memory-based processes that are biased to retrieve previous shared information. We manipulated whether the experimenter who asked the test question had witnessed the change of location with the children. For the experimental group (age range = 3.00-4.17 years, Mage = 3.61 years, SD = 0.36), a second experimenter took the place of the first after the object location was changed. Performance was compared with a control group (age range = 3.00-4.25 years, Mage = 3.66 years, SD = 0.34) in which one experimenter conducted the whole procedure. Participants also undertook the Bear/Dragon task, a test of conflict inhibitory control. In the control group, 6 of 19 children (32%) passed, similar to previous results. In the experimental group, 12 of 19 (63%) passed. The groups did not differ significantly on their inhibitory control scores, and a logistic regression analysis revealed that only condition significantly predicted performance. We conclude that a bias toward shared information is a relevant factor in understanding children's difficulty with the standard test question used in the change-of-location explicit false belief task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gideon Salter
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9JP, UK.
| | - Richard Breheny
- Department of Linguistics, Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London WC1N 1PF, UK.
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20
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How do you know that? Automatic belief inferences in passing conversation. Cognition 2019; 193:104011. [PMID: 31255905 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2018] [Revised: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
There is an ongoing debate, both in philosophy and psychology, as to whether people are able to automatically infer what others may know, or whether they can only derive belief inferences by deploying cognitive resources. Evidence from laboratory tasks, often involving false beliefs or visual-perspective taking, has suggested that belief inferences are cognitively costly, controlled processes. Here we suggest that in everyday conversation, belief reasoning is pervasive and therefore potentially automatic in some cases. To test this hypothesis, we conducted two pre-registered self-paced reading experiments (N1 = 91, N2 = 89). The results of these experiments showed that participants slowed down when a stranger commented 'That greasy food is bad for your ulcer' relative to conditions where a stranger commented on their own ulcer or a friend made either comment - none of which violated participants' common-ground expectations. We conclude that Theory of Mind models need to account for belief reasoning in conversation as it is at the center of everyday social interaction.
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Hilverman C, Brown-Schmidt S, Duff MC. Gesture height reflects common ground status even in patients with amnesia. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2019; 190:31-37. [PMID: 30677621 PMCID: PMC6688473 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2018.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2018] [Revised: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
When we communicate, we alter our language and gesture based on the mutually shared knowledge - common ground - that we have with our listener. How memory supports these alterations remain unclear. We asked healthy adults and patients with hippocampal amnesia to engage in a referential communication task. Previous work suggests that common ground can be encoded by distinct memory systems; Amnesic patients show normal learning and referential label use as common ground increases, but inconsistently mark these labels with definite determiners (e.g., the vs. a windmill). Which memory systems support the ability to mark common ground via hand gesture? We found that gestures of both healthy participants and amnesic patients reflected common ground status. Both groups produced high gestures when common ground was lacking, and were less likely to do so as common ground increased. These findings suggest that gesture can reflect common ground status during conversation, potentially via non-declarative memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin Hilverman
- Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, United States.
| | - Sarah Brown-Schmidt
- Department of Psychology & Human Development, Vanderbilt University, United States
| | - Melissa C Duff
- Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, United States
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22
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Browning CA, Harris CB, Van Bergen P. Successful and Unsuccessful Collaborative Processes in Strangers and Couples Performing Prospective Memory Tasks. DISCOURSE PROCESSES 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/0163853x.2018.1541398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Catherine A. Browning
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders
- Department of Cognitive Science, Macquarie University
| | - Celia B. Harris
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders
- Department of Cognitive Science, Macquarie University
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23
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Healey PGT, de Ruiter JP, Mills GJ. Editors' Introduction: Miscommunication. Top Cogn Sci 2018; 10:264-278. [PMID: 29749040 DOI: 10.1111/tops.12340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2018] [Revised: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 03/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Miscommunication is a neglected issue in the cognitive sciences, where it has often been discounted as noise in the system. This special issue argues for the opposite view: Miscommunication is a highly structured and ubiquitous feature of human interaction that systematically underpins people's ability to create and maintain shared languages. Contributions from conversation analysis, computational linguistics, experimental psychology, and formal semantics provide evidence for these claims. They highlight the multi-modal, multi-person character of miscommunication. They demonstrate the incremental, contingent, and locally adaptive nature of the processes people use to detect and deal with miscommunication. They show how these processes can drive language change. In doing so, these contributions introduce an alternative perspective on what successful communication is, new methods for studying it, and application areas where these ideas have a particular impact. We conclude that miscommunication is not noise but essential to the productive flexibility of human communication, especially our ability to respond constructively to new people and new situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick G T Healey
- Cognitive Science Research Group, School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science, Queen Mary University of London
| | - Jan P de Ruiter
- Departments of Computer Science and Psychology, Tufts University
| | - Gregory J Mills
- Department of Communication and Information Science, University of Groningen
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24
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Le Bigot L, Knutsen D, Gil S. I remember emotional content better, but I'm struggling to remember who said it! Cognition 2018; 180:52-58. [PMID: 29981968 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2018.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2016] [Revised: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 07/02/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The joint impact of emotion and production on conversational memory was examined in two experiments where pairs of participants took turns producing verbal information. They were instructed to produce out loud sentences based on either neutral or emotional (Experiment 1: negative; Experiment 2: positive) words. Each participant was then asked to recall as many words as possible (content memory) and to indicate who had produced each word (reality monitoring). The analyses showed that both self-production and emotion boost content memory, although emotion also impairs reality monitoring. This study sheds light on how both factors (emotion and production) may constrain language interaction memory through information saliency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludovic Le Bigot
- Université de Poitiers, France; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CeRCA UMR 7295), France.
| | | | - Sandrine Gil
- Université de Poitiers, France; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CeRCA UMR 7295), France
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Abstract
Efficient conversation is guided by the mutual knowledge, or common ground, that interlocutors form as a conversation progresses. Characterized from the perspective of commonly used measures of memory, efficient conversation should be closely associated with item memory-what was said-and context memory-who said what to whom. However, few studies have explicitly probed memory to evaluate what type of information is maintained following a communicative exchange. The current study examined how item and context memory relate to the development of common ground over the course of a conversation, and how these forms of memory vary as a function of one's role in a conversation as speaker or listener. The process of developing common ground was positively related to both item and context memory. In addition, content that was spoken was remembered better than content that was heard. Our findings illustrate how memory assessments can complement language measures by revealing the impact that basic conversational processes have on memory for what has been discussed. By taking this approach, we show that not only does the process of forming common ground facilitate communication in the present, but it also promotes an enduring record of that event, facilitating conversation into the future.
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Healey PGT, Mills GJ, Eshghi A, Howes C. Running Repairs: Coordinating Meaning in Dialogue. Top Cogn Sci 2018; 10:367-388. [PMID: 29687611 DOI: 10.1111/tops.12336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2016] [Revised: 01/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
People give feedback in conversation: both positive signals of understanding, such as nods, and negative signals of misunderstanding, such as frowns. How do signals of understanding and misunderstanding affect the coordination of language use in conversation? Using a chat tool and a maze-based reference task, we test two experimental manipulations that selectively interfere with feedback in live conversation: (a) "Attenuation" that replaces positive signals of understanding such as "right" or "okay" with weaker, more provisional signals such as "errr" or "umm" and (2) "Amplification" that replaces relatively specific signals of misunderstanding from clarification requests such as "on the left?" with generic signals of trouble such as "huh?" or "eh?". The results show that Amplification promotes rapid convergence on more systematic, abstract ways of describing maze locations while Attenuation has no significant effect. We interpret this as evidence that "running repairs"-the processes of dealing with misunderstandings on the fly-are key drivers of semantic coordination in dialogue. This suggests a new direction for experimental work on conversation and a productive way to connect the empirical accounts of Conversation Analysis with the representational and processing concerns of Formal Semantics and Psycholinguistics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick G T Healey
- School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science, Queen Mary University of London
| | - Gregory J Mills
- Language Technology - Computational Linguistics, University of Groningen
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Kuperberg GR, Ditman T, Choi Perrachione A. When Proactivity Fails: An Electrophysiological Study of Establishing Reference in Schizophrenia. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY. COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE AND NEUROIMAGING 2018; 3:77-87. [PMID: 29397083 PMCID: PMC5801772 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2017.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Revised: 09/08/2017] [Accepted: 09/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schizophrenia is characterized by abnormalities in referential communication, which may be linked to more general deficits in proactive cognitive control. We used event-related potentials to probe the timing and nature of the neural mechanisms engaged as people with schizophrenia linked pronouns to their preceding referents during word-by-word sentence comprehension. METHODS We measured event-related potentials to pronouns in two-clause sentences in 16 people with schizophrenia and 20 demographically matched control participants. Our design crossed the number of potential referents (1-referent, 2-referent) with whether the pronoun matched the gender of its preceding referent(s) (matching, mismatching). This gave rise to four conditions: 1) 1-referent matching ("Edward took courses in accounting but he . . ."); 2) 2-referent matching ("Edward and Phillip took courses but he . . . "); 3) 1-referent mismatching ("Edward took courses in accounting but she . . ."); and 4) 2-referent mismatching ("Edward and Phillip took courses but she . . ."). RESULTS Consistent with previous findings, healthy control participants produced a larger left anteriorly distributed negativity between 400 and 600 ms to 2-referent matching than to 1-referent matching pronouns (the "Nref effect"). In contrast, people with schizophrenia produced a larger centroposterior positivity effect between 600 and 800 ms. Both patient and control groups produced a larger positivity between 400 and 800 ms to mismatching than to matching pronouns. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that proactive mechanisms of referential processing, reflected by the Nref effect, are impaired in schizophrenia, while reactive mechanisms, reflected by the positivity effects, are relatively spared. Indeed, patients may compensate for proactive deficits by retroactively engaging with context to influence the processing of inputs at a later stage of analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gina R Kuperberg
- Department of Psychology, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts; Department of Psychiatry and the Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts.
| | - Tali Ditman
- Department of Psychiatry and the Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
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Kline M, Schulz L, Gibson E. Partial Truths: Adults Choose to Mention Agents and Patients in Proportion to Informativity, Even If It Doesn’t Fully Disambiguate the Message. OPEN MIND 2017. [DOI: 10.1162/opmi_a_00013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
How do we decide what to say to ensure our meanings will be understood? The Rational Speech Act model (RSA; Frank & Goodman, 2012 ) asserts that speakers plan what to say by comparing the informativity of words in a particular context. We present the first example of an RSA model of sentence-level (who-did-what-to-whom) meanings. In these contexts, the set of possible messages must be abstracted from entities in common ground (people and objects) to possible events (Jane eats the apple, Marco peels the banana), with each word contributing unique semantic content. How do speakers accomplish the transformation from context to compositional, informative messages? In a communication game, participants described transitive events (e.g., Jane pets the dog), with only two words, in contexts where two words either were or were not enough to uniquely identify an event. Adults chose utterances matching the predictions of the RSA even when there was no possible fully “successful” utterance. Thus we show that adults’ communicative behavior can be described by a model that accommodates informativity in context, beyond the set of possible entities in common ground. This study provides the first evidence that adults’ language production is affected, at the level of argument structure, by the graded informativity of possible utterances in context, and suggests that full-blown natural speech may result from speakers who model and adapt to the listener’s needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Kline
- Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
| | - Laura Schulz
- Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
| | - Edward Gibson
- Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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30
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Apperly I. Mindreading and Psycholinguistic Approaches to Perspective Taking: Establishing Common Ground. Top Cogn Sci 2017; 10:133-139. [PMID: 29143472 DOI: 10.1111/tops.12308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
In this commentary on "Memory and Common Ground Processes in Language Use," I draw attention to relevant work on mindreading. The concerns of research on common ground and mindreading have significant overlap, but these literatures have worked in relative isolation of each other. I attempt an assimilation, pointing out shared and distinctive concerns and mutually informative results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Apperly
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham
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31
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Yoon SO, Duff MC, Brown-Schmidt S. Learning and using knowledge about what other people do and don't know despite amnesia. Cortex 2017; 94:164-175. [PMID: 28768183 PMCID: PMC5567824 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2017.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Revised: 02/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Successful communication requires keeping track of what other people do and do not know, and how this differs from our own knowledge. Here we ask how knowledge of what others know is stored in memory. We take a neuropsychological approach, comparing healthy adults to patients with severe declarative memory impairment (amnesia). We evaluate whether this memory impairment disrupts the ability to successfully acquire and use knowledge about what other people know when communicating with them. We tested participants in a referential communication task in which the participants described a series of abstract "tangram" images for a partner. Participants then repeated the task with the same partner or a new partner. Findings show that much like healthy individuals, individuals with amnesia successfully tailored their communicative language to the knowledge shared with their conversational partner-their common ground. They produced brief descriptions of the tangram images for the familiar partner and provided more descriptive, longer expressions for the new partner. These findings demonstrate remarkable sparing in amnesia of the acquisition and use of partner-specific knowledge that underlies common ground, and have important implications for understanding the memory systems that support conversational language.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si On Yoon
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA.
| | - Melissa C Duff
- Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Sarah Brown-Schmidt
- Department of Psychology and Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
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Brown-Schmidt S, Duff MC. Memory and Common Ground Processes in Language Use. Top Cogn Sci 2016; 8:722-736. [PMID: 27797165 DOI: 10.1111/tops.12224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2016] [Revised: 07/17/2016] [Accepted: 07/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
During communication, we form assumptions about what our communication partners know and believe. Information that is mutually known between the discourse partners-their common ground-serves as a backdrop for successful communication. Here we present an introduction to the focus of this topic, which is the role of memory in common ground and language use. Two types of questions emerge as central to understanding the relationship between memory and common ground, specifically questions having to do with the representation of common ground in memory, and the use of common ground during language processing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Melissa C Duff
- Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center
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33
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Arnold JE. Explicit and Emergent Mechanisms of Information Status. Top Cogn Sci 2016; 8:737-760. [PMID: 27766755 DOI: 10.1111/tops.12220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2015] [Revised: 03/14/2016] [Accepted: 04/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
It is well established that language production and comprehension are influenced by information status, for example, whether information is given, new, topical, or predictable, and many scholars suggest that an important component of information status is keeping track of what information is in common ground (i.e., what is shared), and what is not. Information status affects both speakers' choices (e.g., word order, pronoun use, prosodic prominence) and how listeners interpret the speaker's meaning (e.g., Chafe, 1994; Prince, 1981). Although there is a wealth of scholarly work on information status (for a review, see Arnold, Kaiser, Kahn, & Kim, 2013), there is no consensus on the mechanisms by which it is used, and in fact relatively little discussion of the underlying representations and psycholinguistic mechanisms. Moreover, a major challenge to understanding information status is that its effects are notoriously variable. This study considers existing proposals about information status, focusing on two questions: (a) how is it represented; and (b) by what mechanisms is it used? I propose that it is important to consider whether representations and mechanisms can be classified as either explicit or emergent. Based on a review of existing evidence, I argue that information status representations are most likely emergent, but the mechanisms by which they are used are both explicit and emergent. This review provides one of the first considerations of information status processing across multiple domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer E Arnold
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
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34
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The historical context in conversation: Lexical differentiation and memory for the discourse history. Cognition 2016; 154:102-117. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2016.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2015] [Revised: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 05/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Knutsen D, Ros C, Le Bigot L. Generating References in Naturalistic Face-to-Face and Phone-Mediated Dialog Settings. Top Cogn Sci 2016; 8:796-818. [PMID: 27541074 DOI: 10.1111/tops.12218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2014] [Revised: 09/28/2015] [Accepted: 10/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
During dialog, references are presented, accepted, and potentially reused (depending on their accessibility in memory). Two experiments were conducted to examine reuse in a naturalistic setting (a walk in a familiar environment). In Experiment 1, where the participants interacted face to face, self-presented references and references accepted through verbatim repetition were reused more. Such biases persisted after the end of the interaction. In Experiment 2, where the participants interacted over the phone, reference reuse mainly depended on whether the participant could see the landmarks being referred to, although this bias seemed to be only transient. Consistent with the memory-based approach to dialog, these results shed light on how differences in accessibility in memory (due to how these references were initially added to the common ground or the media used) affect the unfolding of the interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christine Ros
- Department of Psychology, University of Poitiers, CNRS (CeRCA, UMR, 72950)
| | - Ludovic Le Bigot
- Department of Psychology, University of Poitiers, CNRS (CeRCA, UMR, 72950)
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36
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Horton WS, Gerrig RJ. Revisiting the Memory-Based Processing Approach to Common Ground. Top Cogn Sci 2016; 8:780-795. [DOI: 10.1111/tops.12216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2014] [Revised: 05/27/2015] [Accepted: 06/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Buz E, Tanenhaus MK, Jaeger TF. Dynamically adapted context-specific hyper-articulation: Feedback from interlocutors affects speakers' subsequent pronunciations. JOURNAL OF MEMORY AND LANGUAGE 2016; 89:68-86. [PMID: 27375344 PMCID: PMC4927008 DOI: 10.1016/j.jml.2015.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
We ask whether speakers can adapt their productions when feedback from their interlocutors suggests that previous productions were perceptually confusable. To address this question, we use a novel web-based task-oriented paradigm for speech recording, in which participants produce instructions towards a (simulated) partner with naturalistic response times. We manipulate (1) whether a target word with a voiceless plosive (e.g., pill) occurs in the presence of a voiced competitor (bill) or an unrelated word (food) and (2) whether or not the simulated partner occasionally misunderstands the target word. Speakers hyper-articulated the target word when a voiced competitor was present. Moreover, the size of the hyper-articulation effect was nearly doubled when partners occasionally misunderstood the instruction. A novel type of distributional analysis further suggests that hyper-articulation did not change the target of production, but rather reduced the probability of perceptually ambiguous or confusable productions. These results were obtained in the absence of explicit clarification requests, and persisted across words and over trials. Our findings suggest that speakers adapt their pronunciations based on the perceived communicative success of their previous productions in the current environment. We discuss why speakers make adaptive changes to their speech and what mechanisms might underlie speakers' ability to do so.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esteban Buz
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, University of Rochester, United States
| | - Michael K. Tanenhaus
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, University of Rochester, United States
- Department of Linguistics, University of Rochester, United States
| | - T. Florian Jaeger
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, University of Rochester, United States
- Department of Linguistics, University of Rochester, United States
- Department of Computer Science, University of Rochester, United States
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Horton WS, Brennan SE. The Role of Metarepresentation in the Production and Resolution of Referring Expressions. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1111. [PMID: 27512379 PMCID: PMC4961705 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In this paper we consider the potential role of metarepresentation—the representation of another representation, or as commonly considered within cognitive science, the mental representation of another individual's knowledge and beliefs—in mediating definite reference and common ground in conversation. Using dialogues from a referential communication study in which speakers conversed in succession with two different addressees, we highlight ways in which interlocutors work together to successfully refer to objects, and achieve shared conceptualizations. We briefly review accounts of how such shared conceptualizations could be represented in memory, from simple associations between label and referent, to “triple co-presence” representations that track interlocutors in an episode of referring, to more elaborate metarepresentations that invoke theory of mind, mutual knowledge, or a model of a conversational partner. We consider how some forms of metarepresentation, once created and activated, could account for definite reference in conversation by appealing to ordinary processes in memory. We conclude that any representations that capture information about others' perspectives are likely to be relatively simple and subject to the same kinds of constraints on attention and memory that influence other kinds of cognitive representations.
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Affiliation(s)
- William S Horton
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Susan E Brennan
- Department of Psychology, Stony Brook University Stony Brook, NY, USA
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Karimi H, Ferreira F. Good-enough linguistic representations and online cognitive equilibrium in language processing. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2016; 69:1013-40. [PMID: 26103207 DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2015.1053951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
We review previous research showing that representations formed during language processing are sometimes just “good enough” for the task at hand and propose the “online cognitive equilibrium” hypothesis as the driving force behind the formation of good-enough representations in language processing. Based on this view, we assume that the language comprehension system by default prefers to achieve as early as possible and remain as long as possible in a state of cognitive equilibrium where linguistic representations are successfully incorporated with existing knowledge structures (i.e., schemata) so that a meaningful and coherent overall representation is formed, and uncertainty is resolved or at least minimized. We also argue that the online equilibrium hypothesis is consistent with current theories of language processing, which maintain that linguistic representations are formed through a complex interplay between simple heuristics and deep syntactic algorithms and also theories that hold that linguistic representations are often incomplete and lacking in detail. We also propose a model of language processing that makes use of both heuristic and algorithmic processing, is sensitive to online cognitive equilibrium, and, we argue, is capable of explaining the formation of underspecified representations. We review previous findings providing evidence for underspecification in relation to this hypothesis and the associated language processing model and argue that most of these findings are compatible with them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hossein Karimi
- Department of Psychology, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Fernanda Ferreira
- Department of Psychology, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA, USA
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Schuh JM, Eigsti IM, Mirman D. Discourse comprehension in autism spectrum disorder: Effects of working memory load and common ground. Autism Res 2016; 9:1340-1352. [PMID: 27091496 DOI: 10.1002/aur.1632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2015] [Revised: 01/25/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jillian M. Schuh
- Division of Neuropsychology; Department of Neurology-FWC; Medical College of Wisconsin 9200 West Wisconsin Ave; Milwaukee Wisconsin
| | - Inge-Marie Eigsti
- Division of Neuropsychology; Department of Neurology-FWC; Medical College of Wisconsin 9200 West Wisconsin Ave; Milwaukee Wisconsin
- Department of Psychology; University of Connecticut; 406 Babbidge Road U-1020 Storrs Connecticut
| | - Daniel Mirman
- Department of Psychology; 3141 Chestnut St., Drexel University; Philadelphia Pennsylvania
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Gegg-Harrison WM, Tanenhaus MK. What's in a Name? Interlocutors Dynamically Update Expectations about Shared Names. Front Psychol 2016; 7:212. [PMID: 26955361 PMCID: PMC4767932 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2015] [Accepted: 02/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In order to refer using a name, speakers must believe that their addressee knows about the link between the name and the intended referent. In cases where speakers and addressees learned a subset of names together, speakers are adept at using only the names their partner knows. But speakers do not always share such learning experience with their conversational partners. In these situations, what information guides speakers' choice of referring expression? A speaker who is uncertain about a names' common ground (CG) status often uses a name and description together. This N+D form allows speakers to demonstrate knowledge of a name, and could provide, even in the absence of miscommunication, useful evidence to the addressee regarding the speaker's knowledge. In cases where knowledge of one name is associated with knowledge of other names, this could provide indirect evidence regarding knowledge of other names that could support generalizations used to update beliefs about CG. Using Bayesian approaches to language processing as a guiding framework, we predict that interlocutors can use their partner's choice of referring expression, in particular their use of an N+D form, to generate more accurate beliefs regarding their partner's knowledge of other names. In Experiment 1, we find that domain experts are able to use their partner's referring expression choices to generate more accurate estimates of CG. In Experiment 2, we find that interlocutors are able to infer from a partner's use of an N+D form which other names that partner is likely to know or not know. Our results suggest that interlocutors can use the information conveyed in their partner's choice of referring expression to make generalizations that contribute to more accurate beliefs about what is shared with their partner, and further, that models of CG for reference need to account not just for the status of referents, but the status of means of referring to those referents.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael K Tanenhaus
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, University of Rochester Rochester, NY, USA
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Heller D, Arnold JE, Klein NM, Tanenhaus MK. Inferring Difficulty: Flexibility in the Real-time Processing of Disfluency. LANGUAGE AND SPEECH 2015; 58:190-203. [PMID: 26677642 PMCID: PMC4685722 DOI: 10.1177/0023830914528107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Upon hearing a disfluent referring expression, listeners expect the speaker to refer to an object that is previously unmentioned, an object that does not have a straightforward label, or an object that requires a longer description. Two visual-world eye-tracking experiments examined whether listeners directly associate disfluency with these properties of objects, or whether disfluency attribution is more flexible and involves situation-specific inferences. Since in natural situations reference to objects that do not have a straightforward label or that require a longer description is correlated with both production difficulty and with disfluency, we used a mini-artificial lexicon to dissociate difficulty from these properties, building on the fact that recently learned names take longer to produce than existing words in one's mental lexicon. The results demonstrate that disfluency attribution involves situation-specific inferences; we propose that in new situations listeners spontaneously infer what may cause production difficulty. However, the results show that these situation-specific inferences are limited in scope: listeners assessed difficulty relative to their own experience with the artificial names, and did not adapt to the assumed knowledge of the speaker.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Natalie M. Klein
- Office of Research Protections, US Army Medical Research and Materiel Command
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Eshghi A, Healey PGT. Collective Contexts in Conversation: Grounding by Proxy. Cogn Sci 2015; 40:299-324. [DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2012] [Revised: 09/22/2014] [Accepted: 10/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Brown-Schmidt S, Yoon SO, Ryskin RA. People as Contexts in Conversation. PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.plm.2014.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Brown-Schmidt S, Horton WS. The influence of partner-specific memory associations on picture naming: a failure to replicate Horton (2007). PLoS One 2014; 9:e109035. [PMID: 25279672 PMCID: PMC4184819 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0109035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2014] [Accepted: 09/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The results of two experiments by Horton (2007) show that speakers name a pictured object faster when in the presence of another person with whom the speaker has previously associated that object name. The first of those two experiments (Horton, 2007, Experiment 1) is the focus of the present research. This paper presents the results of three experiments designed to replicate and extend Horton's (2007) Experiment 1. The original findings were not replicated. These findings do not support the hypothesis that partner-specific memory associations facilitate object naming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Brown-Schmidt
- Department of Psychology and Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, Illinois, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - William S. Horton
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
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Autry KS, Levine WH. A fan effect in anaphor processing: effects of multiple distractors. Front Psychol 2014; 5:818. [PMID: 25120519 PMCID: PMC4114326 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2014] [Accepted: 07/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Research suggests that the presence of a non-referent from the same category as the referent interferes with anaphor resolution. In five experiments, the hypothesis that multiple non-referents would produce a cumulative interference effect (i.e., a fan effect) was examined. This hypothesis was supported in Experiments 1A and 1B, with subjects being less accurate and slower to recognize referents (1A) and non-referents (1B) as the number of potential referents increased from two to five. Surprisingly, the number of potential referents led to a decrease in anaphor reading times. The results of Experiments 2A and 2B replicated the probe-recognition results in a completely within-subjects design and ruled out the possibility that a speeded-reading strategy led to the fan-effect findings. The results of Experiment 3 provided evidence that subjects were resolving the anaphors. These results suggest that multiple non-referents do produce a cumulative interference effect; however, additional research is necessary to explore the effect on anaphor reading times.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin S Autry
- Department of Psychological Science, University of Arkansas Fayetteville, AR, USA
| | - William H Levine
- Department of Psychological Science, University of Arkansas Fayetteville, AR, USA
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Nguyen DT, Fussell SR. Retrospective Analysis of Cognitive and Affective Responses in Intercultural and Intracultural Conversations. DISCOURSE PROCESSES 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/0163853x.2014.949121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Pickering MJ, Garrod S. Self-, other-, and joint monitoring using forward models. Front Hum Neurosci 2014; 8:132. [PMID: 24723869 PMCID: PMC3971194 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2013] [Accepted: 02/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
In the psychology of language, most accounts of self-monitoring assume that it is based on comprehension. Here we outline and develop the alternative account proposed by Pickering and Garrod (2013), in which speakers construct forward models of their upcoming utterances and compare them with the utterance as they produce them. We propose that speakers compute inverse models derived from the discrepancy (error) between the utterance and the predicted utterance and use that to modify their production command or (occasionally) begin anew. We then propose that comprehenders monitor other people’s speech by simulating their utterances using covert imitation and forward models, and then comparing those forward models with what they hear. They use the discrepancy to compute inverse models and modify their representation of the speaker’s production command, or realize that their representation is incorrect and may develop a new production command. We then discuss monitoring in dialogue, paying attention to sequential contributions, concurrent feedback, and the relationship between monitoring and alignment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Simon Garrod
- Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of Glasgow Glasgow, UK
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50
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La production et la compréhension de références dans les théories psychologiques actuelles du dialogue. PSYCHOLOGIE FRANCAISE 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.psfr.2013.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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