Tongue dysfunction in neurological and neuromuscular disorders: A narrative literature review

Figure 1 Analysis of tongue movement by using videofluoroscopic images. A: Analysis of videofluoroscopic (VF) images: (1) Oropharyngeal transit time, (2) Distance of tongue movement along the X-axis, (3) Distance of mandibular movement along the Y-axis; B: Distribution and relationship between the oropharyngeal transit time and speed of tongue movement[23].

Figure 2 Measurement of tongue thickness by using ultrasonography. A: Measurement of tongue thickness, the upper boundary of the mylohyoid raphe, and the upper surface of the tongue; B: Comparison of tongue thickness among the four groups[31]. DMD: Duchenne muscular dystrophy; LGMD: Limb girdle muscular dystrophy; DM1: Myotonic dystrophy type 1; ALS: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Figure 3 Measurement of tongue pressure as tongue strength. A: The tongue pressure measuring device (a handy probe) is shown; B: Correlation between the maximum tongue pressure and range of hyoid bone excursion in the Duchenne muscular dystrophy group[30].