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Drviš I, Vrdoljak D, Ružić L, Dujić G, Dujić Ž, Foretić N. Effects of aerobic and anaerobic training on freedivers' performance. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2025; 65:507-516. [PMID: 39382945 DOI: 10.23736/s0022-4707.24.16436-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/10/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Freediving is a sport that could be defined as both aerobic and anaerobic. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of aerobic-anaerobic training on the performance of moderate and elite freedivers. METHODS The sample of participants included 26 freedivers (9 females) (average age of 26.62±3.34 years, body height of 178.95±9.19 cm, and body mass of 74.64±11.97 kg). The sample of variables included: anthropometric indices, relative maximal oxygen consumption (rVO2max), Diving anaerobic sprint test (DAST), Swimming anaerobic sprint test (SAST), 100-meter crawl sprint test (100 m), maximal dynamic apnea with monofin (DYN), maximal swimming length for 2 minutes (2 min). The study procedure included a 5-month aerobic-anaerobic training intervention. This intervention was conducted during a 4-phase (5-week each) training period. RESULTS The results showed that moderate group showed a significant decrease in 100 m (final 83.94±15.68; initial 88.29±16.73; P<0.00), DASTmax (final 10.91±1.46; initial 12.01±1.38; P<0.00), DAST (final 70.29±8.95; initial 79.40±10.25; P<0.00), SASTmax (final 16.81±2.24; initial 18.01±2.69; P<0.00), SAST(final 112.87±19.19; initial 122.65±21.55; P<0.00), and increase in 2 min (final 140.56±21.53; initial 128.68±19.33; P<0.00), and DYN (final 130.48±26.89; initial 91.65; P<0.00). Similarly, the elite group experienced a decrease in 100 m (final 72.18±9.77; initial 75.00±11.36; P=0.02), DASTmax (final 10.14±0.95; initial 10.88±0.99; P=0.03), DAST (final 65.55±6.50; initial 71.24±7.32; P=0.02), SASTmax (final 14.82±1.84; initial 15.76±1.80; P=0.03), and increase in DYN (final 194.94±27.70; initial 161.11±27.70; P<0.00). CONCLUSIONS The results of this study demonstrate that dynamic apnea, as a main performance factor, had increase in all phases of procedure, with highest increase during anaerobic phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Drviš
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Dario Vrdoljak
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Split, Split, Croatia -
| | - Lana Ružić
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Goran Dujić
- Clinical Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, University Hospital of Split, Split, Croatia
| | - Željko Dujić
- School of Medicine, Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Split, Split, Croatia
| | - Nikola Foretić
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Split, Split, Croatia
- Croatian Olympic Committee, High Performance Sport Center, Zagreb, Croatia
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Padkao T, Prasertsri P. The Impact of Modified Tabata Training on Segmental Fat Accumulation, Muscle Mass, Muscle Thickness, and Physical and Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Overweight and Obese Participants: A Randomized Control Trial. Sports (Basel) 2025; 13:99. [PMID: 40278725 PMCID: PMC12031532 DOI: 10.3390/sports13040099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2025] [Revised: 03/16/2025] [Accepted: 03/19/2025] [Indexed: 04/26/2025] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine changes in body fat, muscle mass, muscle thickness, and physical and cardiorespiratory fitness in overweight and obese individuals following progressive Tabata training. Thirty-six participants were randomly assigned to either the Tabata group (four progressive cycles of body-weight high-intensity intermittent training at 75-85% of maximum perceived exertion, 3 days/week for 12 weeks) or the control group. Body composition, muscle thickness, strength and endurance, and peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) were measured at baseline and after the training period and compared between groups. No changes in body fat percentage and fat mass were found, but the waist-to-hip ratio was lower in the Tabata group (p = 0.043). The muscle mass percentages of the right (p = 0.026) and left legs (p = 0.043) increased, while the muscle thicknesses of the biceps, triceps, rectus femoris, and vastus intermedius were increased in the Tabata group (p < 0.05) to a greater extent than in the control group (p < 0.05). Muscle strength and endurance (p < 0.05), as well as VO2peak (p = 0.006), also increased in the Tabata group. Twelve weeks of modified Tabata training effectively increased muscle mass and thickness and physical and cardiorespiratory fitness, although it did not reduce fat mass in overweight and obese participants. The combination of this training with a dietary intervention may have a more obvious impact.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Piyapong Prasertsri
- Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Burapha University, Chonburi 20131, Thailand;
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Seiler S. It's about the long game, not epic workouts: unpacking HIIT for endurance athletes. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2024; 49:1585-1599. [PMID: 39079169 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2024-0012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/17/2024]
Abstract
High-intensity interval training (HIIT) prescriptions manipulate intensity, duration, and recovery variables in multiple combinations. Researchers often compare different HIIT variable combinations and treat HIIT prescription as a "maximization problem", seeking to identify the prescription(s) that induce the largest acute VO2/HR/RPE response. However, studies connecting the magnitude of specific acute HIIT response variables like work time >90% of VO2max and resulting cellular signalling and/or translation to protein upregulation and performance enhancement are lacking. This is also not how successful endurance athletes train. First, HIIT training cannot be seen in isolation. Successful endurance athletes perform most of their training volume below the first lactate turn point (
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Seiler
- Department of Sport Science and Physical Education, University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway
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Wang W, Wu D, Wang H, Zhang Z, Jiang X, Li S, Shi Y, Gao X. Acute Effects of Breath-Hold Conditions on Aerobic Fitness in Elite Rugby Players. Life (Basel) 2024; 14:917. [PMID: 39202660 PMCID: PMC11355650 DOI: 10.3390/life14080917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2024] [Revised: 07/09/2024] [Accepted: 07/19/2024] [Indexed: 09/03/2024] Open
Abstract
The effects of face immersion and concurrent exercise on the diving reflex evoked by breath-hold (BH) differ, yet little is known about the combined effects of different BH conditions on aerobic fitness in elite athletes. This study aimed to assess the acute effects of various BH conditions on 18 male elite rugby players (age: 23.5 ± 1.8 years; height: 183.3 ± 3.4 cm; body mass: 84.8 ± 8.5 kg) and identify the BH condition eliciting the greatest aerobic fitness activation. Participants underwent five warm-up conditions: baseline regular breathing, dynamic dry BH (DD), static dry BH (SD), wet dynamic BH (WD), and wet static BH (WS). Significant differences (p < 0.05) were found in red blood cells (RBCs), red blood cell volume (RGB), and hematocrit (HCT) pre- and post-warm-up. Peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) and relative oxygen uptake (VO2/kgpeak) varied significantly across conditions, with BH groups showing notably higher values than the regular breathing group (p < 0.05). Interaction effects of facial immersion and movement conditions were significant for VO2peak, VO2/kgpeak, and the cardiopulmonary optimal point (p < 0.05). Specifically, VO2peak and peak stroke volume (SVpeak) were significantly higher in the DD group compared to that in other conditions. Increases in VO2peak were strongly correlated with changes in RBCs and HCT induced by DD warm-up (r∆RBC = 0.84, r∆HCT = 0.77, p < 0.01). In conclusion, DD BH warm-up appears to optimize subsequent aerobic performance in elite athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendi Wang
- Sports Rehabilitation Research Center, China Institute of Sport Science, Beijing 100061, China; (W.W.); (D.W.); (H.W.)
| | - Dongzhe Wu
- Sports Rehabilitation Research Center, China Institute of Sport Science, Beijing 100061, China; (W.W.); (D.W.); (H.W.)
- School of Sport Science, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Hao Wang
- Sports Rehabilitation Research Center, China Institute of Sport Science, Beijing 100061, China; (W.W.); (D.W.); (H.W.)
| | - Zhiqiang Zhang
- Department of Sports and Arts, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; (Z.Z.); (X.J.); (S.L.); (Y.S.)
| | - Xuming Jiang
- Department of Sports and Arts, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; (Z.Z.); (X.J.); (S.L.); (Y.S.)
| | - Shufeng Li
- Department of Sports and Arts, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; (Z.Z.); (X.J.); (S.L.); (Y.S.)
| | - Yongjin Shi
- Department of Sports and Arts, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; (Z.Z.); (X.J.); (S.L.); (Y.S.)
| | - Xiaolin Gao
- Sports Rehabilitation Research Center, China Institute of Sport Science, Beijing 100061, China; (W.W.); (D.W.); (H.W.)
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Wizenberg AM, Gonzalez-Rojas D, Rivera PM, Proppe CE, Laurel KP, Stout JR, Fukuda DH, Billaut F, Keller JL, Hill EC. Acute Effects of Continuous and Intermittent Blood Flow Restriction on Sprint Interval Performance and Muscle Oxygen Responses. J Strength Cond Res 2023; 37:e546-e554. [PMID: 37639655 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Wizenberg, AM, Gonzalez-Rojas, D, Rivera, PM, Proppe, CE, Laurel, KP, Stout, JR, Fukuda, DH, Billaut, F, Keller, JL, and Hill, EC. Acute effects of continuous and intermittent blood flow restriction on sprint interval performance and muscle oxygen responses. J Strength Cond Res 37(10): e546-e554, 2023-This investigation aimed to examine the acute effects of continuous and intermittent blood flow restriction (CBFR and IBFR, respectively) during sprint interval training (SIT) on muscle oxygenation, sprint performance, and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE). Fifteen men (22.6 ± 2.4 years; 176 ± 6.3 cm; 80.0 ± 12.6 kg) completed in random order a SIT session with CBFR, IBFR (applied during rest), and no blood flow restriction (NoBFR). Each SIT session consisted of two 30-second all-out sprint tests separated by 2 minutes. Peak power (PP), total work (TW), sprint decrement score (S dec ), RPE, and muscle oxygenation were measured during each sprint. A p value ≤0.05 was considered statistically significant. PP decreased to a greater extent from sprint 1 to sprint 2 during CBFR (25.5 ± 11.9%) and IBFR (23.4 ± 9.3%) compared with NoBFR (13.4 ± 8.6%). TW was reduced similarly (17,835.6 ± 966.2 to 12,687.2 ± 675.2 J) from sprint 1 to sprint 2 for all 3 conditions, but TW was lower (collapsed across time) for CBFR (14,320.7 ± 769.1 J) than IBFR (15,548.0 ± 840.5 J) and NoBFR (15,915.4 ± 771.5 J). There were no differences in S dec (84.3 ± 1.7%, 86.1 ± 1.5%, and 87.2 ± 1.1% for CBFR, IBFR, and NoBFR, respectively) or RPE, which increased from sprint 1 (8.5 ± 0.3) to sprint 2 (9.7 ± 0.1). Collective muscle oxygenation responses increased across time and were similar among conditions, whereas increases in deoxy[heme] and total[heme] were greatest for CBFR. Applying BFR during SIT induced greater decrements in PP, and CBFR resulted in greater decrements in work across repeated sprints. The larger increases in deoxy[heme] and total[heme] for CBFR suggested it may induce greater metabolite accumulation than IBFR and NoBFR when combined with SIT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron M Wizenberg
- Exercise Physiology Intervention and Collaboration Laboratory, School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy, Division of Kinesiology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida
| | - David Gonzalez-Rojas
- Exercise Physiology Intervention and Collaboration Laboratory, School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy, Division of Kinesiology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida
| | - Paola M Rivera
- Exercise Physiology Intervention and Collaboration Laboratory, School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy, Division of Kinesiology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida
| | - Christopher E Proppe
- Exercise Physiology Intervention and Collaboration Laboratory, School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy, Division of Kinesiology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida
| | - Kaliegh P Laurel
- Exercise Physiology Intervention and Collaboration Laboratory, School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy, Division of Kinesiology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida
| | - Jeffery R Stout
- Exercise Physiology Intervention and Collaboration Laboratory, School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy, Division of Kinesiology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida
| | - David H Fukuda
- Exercise Physiology Intervention and Collaboration Laboratory, School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy, Division of Kinesiology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida
| | | | - Joshua L Keller
- Integrative Laboratory of Exercise and Applied Physiology, Department of Health, Kinesiology, and Sport, College of Education and Professional Studies, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama; and
| | - Ethan C Hill
- Exercise Physiology Intervention and Collaboration Laboratory, School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy, Division of Kinesiology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida
- Florida Space Institute, Partnership I, Research Parkway, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida
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de Asís-Fernández F, Sereno D, Turner AP, González-Mohíno F, González-Ravé JM. Effects of apnoea training on aerobic and anaerobic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Physiol 2022; 13:964144. [PMID: 36237527 PMCID: PMC9551563 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.964144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Trained breath-hold divers have shown physiological adaptations that might improve athletes’ aerobic and anaerobic performance.Objective This study aimed to systematically review the scientific literature and perform a meta-analysis to assess the effects of voluntary apnoea training on markers of anaerobic and aerobic performance, such as blood lactate and VO2max.Methods A literature search on three databases (Web of Science, PubMed and SCOPUS) was conducted in March 2022. The inclusion criteria were 1) peer-reviewed journal publication; 2) clinical trials; 3) healthy humans; 4) effects of apnoea training; 5) variables included markers of aerobic or anaerobic performance, such as lactate and VO2max.Results 545 manuscripts were identified following database examination. Only seven studies met the inclusion criteria and were, therefore, included in the meta-analysis. 126 participants were allocated to either voluntary apnoea training (ApT; n = 64) or normal breathing (NB; n = 63). Meta-analysis on the included studies demonstrated that ApT increased the peak blood lactate concentration more than NB (MD = 1.89 mmol*L−1 [95% CI 1.05, 2.73], z = 4.40, p < 0.0001). In contrast, there were no statistically significant effects of ApT on VO2max (MD = 0.89 ml*kg−1*min−1 [95% CI −1.23, 3.01], z = 0.82, p = 0.41).Conclusion ApT might be an alternative strategy to enhace anaerobic performance associated with increased maximum blood lactate; however, we did not find evidence of ApT effects on physiological aerobic markers, such as VO2max.Systematic Review Registration: [PRISMA], identifier [registration number].
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco de Asís-Fernández
- Departamento de Fisioterapia, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Centro Superior de Estudios Universitarios La Salle, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Breatherapy Research Group, Instituto de Neurociencias y Ciencias del Movimiento (INCIMOV), Centro Superior de Estudios Universitarios La Salle, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Daniel Sereno
- Breatherapy Research Group, Instituto de Neurociencias y Ciencias del Movimiento (INCIMOV), Centro Superior de Estudios Universitarios La Salle, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Sports Training Laboratory, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| | - Anthony P. Turner
- Sport, Physical Education and Health Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Fernando González-Mohíno
- Sports Training Laboratory, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida y de la Naturaleza, Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain
- *Correspondence: Fernando González-Mohíno,
| | - José María González-Ravé
- Sports Training Laboratory, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
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Maximal muscular power: lessons from sprint cycling. SPORTS MEDICINE-OPEN 2021; 7:48. [PMID: 34268627 PMCID: PMC8282832 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-021-00341-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Maximal muscular power production is of fundamental importance to human functional capacity and feats of performance. Here, we present a synthesis of literature pertaining to physiological systems that limit maximal muscular power during cyclic actions characteristic of locomotor behaviours, and how they adapt to training. Maximal, cyclic muscular power is known to be the main determinant of sprint cycling performance, and therefore we present this synthesis in the context of sprint cycling. Cyclical power is interactively constrained by force-velocity properties (i.e. maximum force and maximum shortening velocity), activation-relaxation kinetics and muscle coordination across the continuum of cycle frequencies, with the relative influence of each factor being frequency dependent. Muscle cross-sectional area and fibre composition appear to be the most prominent properties influencing maximal muscular power and the power-frequency relationship. Due to the role of muscle fibre composition in determining maximum shortening velocity and activation-relaxation kinetics, it remains unclear how improvable these properties are with training. Increases in maximal muscular power may therefore arise primarily from improvements in maximum force production and neuromuscular coordination via appropriate training. Because maximal efforts may need to be sustained for ~15-60 s within sprint cycling competition, the ability to attenuate fatigue-related power loss is also critical to performance. Within this context, the fatigued state is characterised by impairments in force-velocity properties and activation-relaxation kinetics. A suppression and leftward shift of the power-frequency relationship is subsequently observed. It is not clear if rates of power loss can be improved with training, even in the presence adaptations associated with fatigue-resistance. Increasing maximum power may be most efficacious for improving sustained power during brief maximal efforts, although the inclusion of sprint interval training likely remains beneficial. Therefore, evidence from sprint cycling indicates that brief maximal muscular power production under cyclical conditions can be readily improved via appropriate training, with direct implications for sprint cycling as well as other athletic and health-related pursuits.
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Atakan MM, Li Y, Koşar ŞN, Turnagöl HH, Yan X. Evidence-Based Effects of High-Intensity Interval Training on Exercise Capacity and Health: A Review with Historical Perspective. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:7201. [PMID: 34281138 PMCID: PMC8294064 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18137201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 06/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Engaging in regular exercise results in a range of physiological adaptations offering benefits for exercise capacity and health, independent of age, gender or the presence of chronic diseases. Accumulating evidence shows that lack of time is a major impediment to exercise, causing physical inactivity worldwide. This issue has resulted in momentum for interval training models known to elicit higher enjoyment and induce adaptations similar to or greater than moderate-intensity continuous training, despite a lower total exercise volume. Although there is no universal definition, high-intensity interval exercise is characterized by repeated short bursts of intense activity, performed with a "near maximal" or "all-out" effort corresponding to ≥90% of maximal oxygen uptake or >75% of maximal power, with periods of rest or low-intensity exercise. Research has indicated that high-intensity interval training induces numerous physiological adaptations that improve exercise capacity (maximal oxygen uptake, aerobic endurance, anaerobic capacity etc.) and metabolic health in both clinical and healthy (athletes, active and inactive individuals without any apparent disease or disorder) populations. In this paper, a brief history of high-intensity interval training is presented, based on the novel findings of some selected studies on exercise capacity and health, starting from the early 1920s to date. Further, an overview of the mechanisms underlying the physiological adaptations in response to high-intensity interval training is provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammed Mustafa Atakan
- Division of Exercise Nutrition and Metabolism, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Hacettepe University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey; (M.M.A.); (Ş.N.K.); (H.H.T.)
| | - Yanchun Li
- China Institute of Sport and Health Science, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100192, China
| | - Şükran Nazan Koşar
- Division of Exercise Nutrition and Metabolism, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Hacettepe University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey; (M.M.A.); (Ş.N.K.); (H.H.T.)
| | - Hüseyin Hüsrev Turnagöl
- Division of Exercise Nutrition and Metabolism, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Hacettepe University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey; (M.M.A.); (Ş.N.K.); (H.H.T.)
| | - Xu Yan
- Institute for Health and Sport (iHeS), Victoria University, Melbourne 8001, Australia;
- Sarcopenia Research Program, Australia Institute for Musculoskeletal Sciences (AIMSS), Melbourne 3021, Australia
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Christiansen D, Eibye K, Hostrup M, Bangsbo J. The effect of blood-flow-restricted interval training on lactate and H + dynamics during dynamic exercise in man. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2021; 231:e13580. [PMID: 33222371 DOI: 10.1111/apha.13580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
AIM To assess how blood-flow-restricted (BFR) interval-training affects the capacity of the leg muscles for pH regulation during dynamic exercise in physically trained men. METHODS Ten men (age: 25 ± 4y; V ˙ O 2 max : 50 ± 5 mL∙kg-1 ∙min-1 ) completed a 6-wk interval-cycling intervention (INT) with one leg under BFR (BFR-leg; ~180 mmHg) and the other without BFR (CON-leg). Before and after INT, thigh net H+ -release (lactate-dependent, lactate-independent and sum) and blood acid/base variables were measured during knee-extensor exercise at 25% (Ex25) and 90% (Ex90) of incremental peak power output. A muscle biopsy was collected before and after Ex90 to determine pH, lactate and density of H+ -transport/buffering systems. RESULTS After INT, net H+ release (BFR-leg: 15 ± 2; CON-leg: 13 ± 3; mmol·min-1 ; Mean ± 95% CI), net lactate-independent H+ release (BFR-leg: 8 ± 1; CON-leg: 4 ± 1; mmol·min-1 ) and net lactate-dependent H+ release (BFR-leg: 9 ± 3; CON-leg: 10 ± 3; mmol·min-1 ) were similar between legs during Ex90 (P > .05), despite a ~142% lower muscle intracellular-to-interstitial lactate gradient in BFR-leg (-3 ± 4 vs 6 ± 6 mmol·L-1 ; P < .05). In recovery from Ex90, net lactate-dependent H+ efflux decreased in BFR-leg with INT (P < .05 vs CON-leg) owing to lowered muscle lactate production (~58% vs CON-leg, P < .05). Net H+ gradient was not different between legs (~19%, P > .05; BFR-leg: 48 ± 30; CON-leg: 44 ± 23; mmol·L-1 ). In BFR-leg, NHE1 density was higher than in CON-leg (~45%; P < .05) and correlated with total-net H+ -release (r = 0.71; P = .031) and lactate-independent H+ release (r = 0.74; P = .023) after INT, where arterial [ HCO 3 - ] and standard base excess in Ex25 were higher in BFR-leg than CON-leg. CONCLUSION Compared to a training control, BFR-interval training increases the capacity for pH regulation during dynamic exercise mainly via enhancement of muscle lactate-dependent H+ -transport function and blood H+ -buffering capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danny Christiansen
- Section of Integrative Physiology Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports (NEXS) University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Ø Denmark
| | - Kasper Eibye
- Section of Integrative Physiology Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports (NEXS) University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Ø Denmark
| | - Morten Hostrup
- Section of Integrative Physiology Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports (NEXS) University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Ø Denmark
| | - Jens Bangsbo
- Section of Integrative Physiology Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports (NEXS) University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Ø Denmark
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Hargreaves M, Spriet LL. Skeletal muscle energy metabolism during exercise. Nat Metab 2020; 2:817-828. [PMID: 32747792 DOI: 10.1038/s42255-020-0251-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 585] [Impact Index Per Article: 117.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The continual supply of ATP to the fundamental cellular processes that underpin skeletal muscle contraction during exercise is essential for sports performance in events lasting seconds to several hours. Because the muscle stores of ATP are small, metabolic pathways must be activated to maintain the required rates of ATP resynthesis. These pathways include phosphocreatine and muscle glycogen breakdown, thus enabling substrate-level phosphorylation ('anaerobic') and oxidative phosphorylation by using reducing equivalents from carbohydrate and fat metabolism ('aerobic'). The relative contribution of these metabolic pathways is primarily determined by the intensity and duration of exercise. For most events at the Olympics, carbohydrate is the primary fuel for anaerobic and aerobic metabolism. Here, we provide an overview of exercise metabolism and the key regulatory mechanisms ensuring that ATP resynthesis is closely matched to the ATP demand of exercise. We also summarize various interventions that target muscle metabolism for ergogenic benefit in athletic events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Hargreaves
- Department of Physiology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Lawrence L Spriet
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
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Takei N, Kakinoki K, Girard O, Hatta H. Short-Term Repeated Wingate Training in Hypoxia and Normoxia in Sprinters. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:43. [PMID: 33345035 PMCID: PMC7739589 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.00043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Repeated Wingate efforts (RW) represent an effective training strategy for improving exercise capacity. Living low-training high altitude/hypoxic training methods, that upregulate muscle adaptations, are increasingly popular. However, the benefits of RW training in hypoxia compared to normoxia on performance and accompanying physiological adaptations remain largely undetermined. Our intention was to test the hypothesis that RW training in hypoxia provides additional performance benefits and more favorable physiological responses than equivalent training in normoxia. Twelve male runners (university sprinters) completed six RW training sessions (3 × 30-s Wingate “all-out” efforts with 4.5-min recovery) in either hypoxia (FiO2: 0.145, n = 6) or normoxia (FiO2: 0.209, n = 6) over 2 weeks. Before and after the intervention, participants underwent a RW performance test (3 × 30-s Wingate “all-out” efforts with 4.5-min recovery). Peak power output, mean power output, and total work for the three exercise bouts were determined. A capillary blood sample was taken for analyzing blood lactate concentration (BLa) 3 min after each of the three efforts. Peak power output (+ 11.3 ± 23.0%, p = 0.001), mean power output (+ 6.6 ± 6.8%, p = 0.001), and total work (+ 6.3 ± 5.4% p = 0.016) significantly increased from pre- to post-training, independently of condition. The time × group × interval interaction was significant (p = 0.05) for BLa. Compared to Pre-tests, BLa values during post-test were higher (+ 8.7 ± 10.3%) after about 2 in the normoxic group, although statistical significance was not reached (p = 0.08). Contrastingly, BLa values were lower (albeit not significantly) during post- compared to pre-tests after bout 2 (−9.3 ± 8.6%; p = 0.08) and bout 3 (−9.1 ± 10.7%; p = 0.09) in the hypoxic group. In conclusion, six RW training sessions over 2 weeks significantly improved RW performance, while training in hypoxia had no additional benefit over normoxia. However, accompanying BLa responses tended to be lower in the hypoxic group, while an opposite pattern was observed in the normoxic group. This indicates that different glycolytic and/or oxidative pathway adaptations were probably at play.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoya Takei
- Department of Sports Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.,Murdoch Applied Sports Science Laboratory, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | | | - Olivier Girard
- School of Human Sciences (Exercise and Sport Science), The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
| | - Hideo Hatta
- Department of Sports Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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Ito S. High-intensity interval training for health benefits and care of cardiac diseases - The key to an efficient exercise protocol. World J Cardiol 2019; 11:171-188. [PMID: 31565193 PMCID: PMC6763680 DOI: 10.4330/wjc.v11.i7.171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2019] [Revised: 04/18/2019] [Accepted: 07/16/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Aerobic capacity, which is expressed as peak oxygen consumption (VO2peak), is well-known to be an independent predictor of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular prognosis. This is true even for people with various coronary risk factors and cardiovascular diseases. Although exercise training is the best method to improve VO2peak, the guidelines of most academic societies recommend 150 or 75 min of moderate- or vigorous- intensity physical activities, respectively, every week to gain health benefits. For general health and primary and secondary cardiovascular prevention, high-intensity interval training (HIIT) has been recognized as an efficient exercise protocol with short exercise sessions. Given the availability of the numerous HIIT protocols, which can be classified into aerobic HIIT and anaerobic HIIT [usually called sprint interval training (SIT)], professionals in health-related fields, including primary physicians and cardiologists, may find it confusing when trying to select an appropriate protocol for their patients. This review describes the classifications of aerobic HIIT and SIT, and their differences in terms of effects, target subjects, adaptability, working mechanisms, and safety. Understanding the HIIT protocols and adopting the correct type for each subject would lead to better improvements in VO2peak with higher adherence and less risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigenori Ito
- Division of Cardiology, Sankuro Hospital, Aichi-ken, Toyota 4710035, Japan.
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Tabata I. Tabata training: one of the most energetically effective high-intensity intermittent training methods. J Physiol Sci 2019; 69:559-572. [PMID: 31004287 PMCID: PMC10717222 DOI: 10.1007/s12576-019-00676-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
For decades, high-intensity interval/intermittent exercise training methods have been used by elite athletes to improve their performance in sports. One of the most effective training methods, i.e., 'Tabata training,' is reviewed herein from the viewpoint of the energetics of exercise. The prior research describing the metabolic profile and effects of Tabata training is also summarized, with some historical anecdotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Izumi Tabata
- Faculty of Health and Sport Science, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Noji-Higashi, Kusatsu City, Shiga, 525-8577, Japan.
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Vollaard NBJ, Metcalfe RS. Research into the Health Benefits of Sprint Interval Training Should Focus on Protocols with Fewer and Shorter Sprints. Sports Med 2018; 47:2443-2451. [PMID: 28391489 PMCID: PMC5684281 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-017-0727-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Over the past decade, it has been convincingly shown that regularly performing repeated brief supramaximal cycle sprints (sprint interval training [SIT]) is associated with aerobic adaptations and health benefits similar to or greater than with moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT). SIT is often promoted as a time-efficient exercise strategy, but the most commonly studied SIT protocol (4–6 repeated 30-s Wingate sprints with 4 min recovery, here referred to as ‘classic’ SIT) takes up to approximately 30 min per session. Combined with high associated perceived exertion, this makes classic SIT unsuitable as an alternative/adjunct to current exercise recommendations involving MICT. However, there are no indications that the design of the classic SIT protocol has been based on considerations regarding the lowest number or shortest duration of sprints to optimise time efficiency while retaining the associated health benefits. In recent years, studies have shown that novel SIT protocols with both fewer and shorter sprints are efficacious at improving important risk factors of noncommunicable diseases in sedentary individuals, and provide health benefits that are no worse than those associated with classic SIT. These shorter/easier protocols have the potential to remove many of the common barriers to exercise in the general population. Thus, based on the evidence summarised in this current opinion paper, we propose that there is a need for a fundamental change in focus in SIT research in order to move away from further characterising the classic SIT protocol and towards establishing acceptable and effective protocols that involve minimal sprint durations and repetitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niels B J Vollaard
- Faculty of Health Sciences and Sport, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, UK.
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Erylmaz SK, Kaynak K, Polat M, Aydoğan S. EFFECTS OF REPEATED SPRINT TRAINING ON ISOCAPNIC BUFFERING PHASE IN VOLLEYBALL PLAYERS. REV BRAS MED ESPORTE 2018. [DOI: 10.1590/1517-869220182404185842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT Introduction: The region between the ventilatory threshold (VT) and respiratory compensation point (RCP) is defined as the isocapnic buffering (ICB) phase and represents a phase of compensation for exercise-induced metabolic acidosis. There is sparse literature examining the effects of physical training on ICB phase in athletes. Objectives: The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a repeated sprint training program on the ICB phase of college volleyball players. Methods: Eighteen male volleyball players were randomly assigned to either an experimental group (n=9) or a control group (n=9) and followed a traditional volleyball training program three times per week for six weeks. The experimental group additionally performed a repeated sprint training protocol immediately before each volleyball training session. Before and after the 6-week training period, all participants performed an incremental treadmill test to determine VT, RCP, and maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). The ICB phases were calculated as VO2 (ml/kg/min) and sprint speed (km/h). Results: The experimental group showed significant improvements in ICB phase, RCP, VO2max and maximal sprint speed after training (p<0.01). There were no significant changes in VT after training in the experimental group (p>0.05). None of these variables changed significantly in the control group (p>0.05). Conclusions: These findings indicate that repeated sprint training can enhance the ICB phase of volleyball players, which may be attributable to an improvement in buffering capacity leading to a shift in RCP towards higher intensities without any change in VT. The increase in the ICB phase may an important factor in terms of improvement in the high-intensity exercise tolerance of athletes. Level of Evidence II; Therapeutic studies - Investigating the results of treatment.
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The Effect of Two Speed Endurance Training Regimes on Performance of Soccer Players. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0138096. [PMID: 26394225 PMCID: PMC4578774 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2015] [Accepted: 08/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In order to better understand the specificity of training adaptations, we compared the effects of two different anaerobic training regimes on various types of soccer-related exercise performances. During the last 3 weeks of the competitive season, thirteen young male professional soccer players (age 18.5±1 yr, height 179.5±6.5 cm, body mass 74.3±6.5 kg) reduced the training volume by ~20% and replaced their habitual fitness conditioning work with either speed endurance production (SEP; n = 6) or speed endurance maintenance (SEM; n = 7) training, three times per wk. SEP training consisted of 6–8 reps of 20-s all-out running bouts followed by 2 min of passive recovery, whereas SEM training was characterized by 6–8 x 20-s all-out efforts interspersed with 40 s of passive recovery. SEP training reduced (p<0.01) the total time in a repeated sprint ability test (RSAt) by 2.5%. SEM training improved the 200-m sprint performance (from 26.59±0.70 to 26.02±0.62 s, p<0.01) and had a likely beneficial impact on the percentage decrement score of the RSA test (from 4.07±1.28 to 3.55±1.01%) but induced a very likely impairment in RSAt (from 83.81±2.37 to 84.65±2.27 s). The distance covered in the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test level 2 was 10.1% (p<0.001) and 3.8% (p<0.05) higher after SEP and SEM training, respectively, with possibly greater improvements following SEP compared to SEM. No differences were observed in the 20- and 40-m sprint performances. In conclusion, these two training strategies target different determinants of soccer-related physical performance. SEP improved repeated sprint and high-intensity intermittent exercise performance, whereas SEM increased muscles’ ability to maximize fatigue tolerance and maintain speed development during both repeated all-out and continuous short-duration maximal exercises. These results provide new insight into the precise nature of a stimulus necessary to improve specific types of athletic performance in trained young soccer players.
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Sahlin K. Muscle energetics during explosive activities and potential effects of nutrition and training. Sports Med 2015; 44 Suppl 2:S167-73. [PMID: 25355190 PMCID: PMC4213384 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-014-0256-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The high-energy demand during high-intensity exercise (HIE) necessitates that anaerobic processes cover an extensive part of the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) requirement. Anaerobic energy release results in depletion of phosphocreatine (PCr) and accumulation of lactic acid, which set an upper limit of anaerobic ATP production and thus HIE performance. This report focuses on the effects of training and ergogenic supplements on muscle energetics and HIE performance. Anaerobic capacity (i.e. the amount of ATP that can be produced) is determined by the muscle content of PCr, the buffer capacity and the volume of the contracting muscle mass. HIE training can increase buffer capacity and the contracting muscle mass but has no effect on the concentration of PCr. Dietary supplementation with creatine (Cr), bicarbonate, or beta-alanine has a documented ergogenic effect. Dietary supplementation with Cr increases muscle Cr and PCr and enhances performance, especially during repeated short periods of HIE. The ergogenic effect of Cr is related to an increase in temporal and spatial buffering of ATP and to increased muscle buffer capacity. Bicarbonate loading increases extracellular buffering and can improve performance during HIE by facilitating lactic acid removal from the contracting muscle. Supplementation with beta-alanine increases the content of muscle carnosine, which is an endogenous intracellular buffer. It is clear that performance during HIE can be improved by interventions that increase the capacity of anaerobic ATP production, suggesting that energetic constraints set a limit for performance during HIE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kent Sahlin
- Åstrand Laboratory of Work Physiology, GIH, The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences, Lidingövägen 1, Box 5626, 11486, Stockholm, Sweden,
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Weston M, Taylor KL, Batterham AM, Hopkins WG. Effects of low-volume high-intensity interval training (HIT) on fitness in adults: a meta-analysis of controlled and non-controlled trials. Sports Med 2015; 44:1005-17. [PMID: 24743927 PMCID: PMC4072920 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-014-0180-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 251] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Background Low-volume high-intensity interval training (HIT) appears to be an efficient and practical way to develop physical fitness. Objective Our objective was to estimate meta-analysed mean effects of HIT on aerobic power (maximum oxygen consumption [VO2max] in an incremental test) and sprint fitness (peak and mean power in a 30-s Wingate test). Data Sources Five databases (PubMed, MEDLINE, Scopus, BIOSIS and Web of Science) were searched for original research articles published up to January 2014. Search terms included ‘high intensity’, ‘HIT’, ‘sprint’, ‘fitness’ and ‘VO2max’. Study Selection Inclusion criteria were fitness assessed pre- and post-training; training period ≥2 weeks; repetition duration 30–60 s; work/rest ratio <1.0; exercise intensity described as maximal or near maximal; adult subjects aged >18 years. Data Extraction The final data set consisted of 55 estimates from 32 trials for VO2max, 23 estimates from 16 trials for peak sprint power, and 19 estimates from 12 trials for mean sprint power. Effects on fitness were analysed as percentages via log transformation. Standard errors calculated from exact p values (where reported) or imputed from errors of measurement provided appropriate weightings. Fixed effects in the meta-regression model included type of study (controlled, uncontrolled), subject characteristics (sex, training status, baseline fitness) and training parameters (number of training sessions, repetition duration, work/rest ratio). Probabilistic magnitude-based inferences for meta-analysed effects were based on standardized thresholds for small, moderate and large changes (0.2, 0.6 and 1.2, respectively) derived from between-subject standard deviations (SDs) for baseline fitness. Results A mean low-volume HIT protocol (13 training sessions, 0.16 work/rest ratio) in a controlled trial produced a likely moderate improvement in the VO2max of active non-athletic males (6.2 %; 90 % confidence limits ±3.1 %), when compared with control. There were possibly moderate improvements in the VO2max of sedentary males (10.0 %; ±5.1 %) and active non-athletic females (3.6 %; ±4.3 %) and a likely small increase for sedentary females (7.3 %; ±4.8 %). The effect on the VO2max of athletic males was unclear (2.7 %; ±4.6 %). A possibly moderate additional increase was likely for subjects with a 10 mL·kg−1·min−1 lower baseline VO2max (3.8 %; ±2.5 %), whereas the modifying effects of sex and difference in exercise dose were unclear. The comparison of HIT with traditional endurance training was unclear (−1.6 %; ±4.3 %). Unexplained variation between studies was 2.0 % (SD). Meta-analysed effects of HIT on Wingate peak and mean power were unclear. Conclusions Low-volume HIT produces moderate improvements in the aerobic power of active non-athletic and sedentary subjects. More studies are needed to resolve the unclear modifying effects of sex and HIT dose on aerobic power and the unclear effects on sprint fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Weston
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, School of Social Sciences and Law, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, UK,
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19
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Larsen RG, Maynard L, Kent JA. High-intensity interval training alters ATP pathway flux during maximal muscle contractions in humans. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2014; 211:147-60. [PMID: 24612773 DOI: 10.1111/apha.12275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2013] [Revised: 02/18/2014] [Accepted: 03/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
AIM High-intensity interval training (HIT) results in potent metabolic adaptations in skeletal muscle; however, little is known about the influence of these adaptations on energetics in vivo. We used magnetic resonance spectroscopy to examine the effects of HIT on ATP synthesis from net PCr breakdown (ATPCK ), oxidative phosphorylation (ATPOX ) and non-oxidative glycolysis (ATPGLY ) in vivo in vastus lateralis during a 24-s maximal voluntary contraction (MVC). METHODS Eight young men performed 6 sessions of repeated, 30-s 'all-out' sprints on a cycle ergometer; measures of muscle energetics were obtained at baseline and after the first and sixth sessions. RESULTS Training increased peak oxygen consumption (35.8 ± 1.4 to 39.3 ± 1.6 mL min(-1) kg(-1) , P = 0.01) and exercise capacity (217.0 ± 11.0 to 230.5 ± 11.7 W, P = 0.04) on the ergometer, with no effects on total ATP production or force-time integral during the MVC. While ATP production by each pathway was unchanged after the first session, 6 sessions increased the relative contribution of ATPOX (from 31 ± 2 to 39 ± 2% of total ATP turnover, P < 0.001) and lowered the relative contribution from both ATPCK (49 ± 2 to 44 ± 1%, P = 0.004) and ATPGLY (20 ± 2 to 17 ± 1%, P = 0.03). CONCLUSION These alterations to muscle ATP production in vivo indicate that brief, maximal contractions are performed with increased support of oxidative ATP synthesis and relatively less contribution from anaerobic ATP production following training. These results extend previous reports of molecular and cellular adaptations to HIT and show that 6 training sessions are sufficient to alter in vivo muscle energetics, which likely contributes to increased exercise capacity after short-term HIT.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. G. Larsen
- Department of Kinesiology; University of Massachusetts; Amherst MA USA
- Department of Health Science and Technology; Aalborg University; Aalborg Denmark
| | - L. Maynard
- Department of Kinesiology; University of Massachusetts; Amherst MA USA
| | - J. A. Kent
- Department of Kinesiology; University of Massachusetts; Amherst MA USA
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Hanon C, Bernard O, Rabate M, Claire T. Effect of two different long-sprint training regimens on sprint performance and associated metabolic responses. J Strength Cond Res 2012; 26:1551-7. [PMID: 22614143 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0b013e318231a6b5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to analyze 2 different long-sprint training programs (TPs) of equal total work load, completed either with short recovery (SR) or long recovery (LR) between sets and to compare the effects of 6 long-sprint training sessions (TSs) conducted over a 2-week period on a 300-m performance. Fourteen trained subjects performed 3 pretraining maximal sprints (50-, 100-, and 300-m), were paired according to their 300-m performance, and randomly allocated to an LR or SR group, which performed 6 TSs consisting of sets of 150, 200, or 250 m. The recovery in the LR group was double that of the SR group. During the third TS and the 300-m pretest and posttest, blood pH, bicarbonate concentration ([HCO₃⁻]), excess-base (EB), and lactate concentration were recorded. Compared with a similar TS performed with SR, the LR training tends to induce a greater alteration of the acid-base balance: pH: 7.09 ± 0.08 (LR) and 7.14 ± 0.05 (SR) (p = 0.10), [HCO₃⁻]: 7.8 ± 1.9 (LR) and 9.6 ± 2.7 (SR) (p = 0.04), and EB: -21.1 ± 3.8 (LR) and -17.7 ± 2.8 (SR) (p = 0.11). A significant improvement in the 300-m performance between pre-TP and post-TP (42.45 ± 2.64 vs. 41.52 ± 2.45, p = 0.01) and significant decreases in pH (p < 0.01), EB (p < 0.001) and increase in [La] (p < 0.001) have been observed post-TP compared with those pre-TP. Although sprint training with longer recovery induces higher metabolic disturbances, both sprint training regimens allow a similar 300-m performance improvement with no concomitant significant progress in the 50- and 100-m performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Hanon
- Laboratory of Biomechanics and Physiology, French National Institute of Sports-INSEP, Paris, France.
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Jacobs RA, Rasmussen P, Siebenmann C, Díaz V, Gassmann M, Pesta D, Gnaiger E, Nordsborg NB, Robach P, Lundby C. Determinants of time trial performance and maximal incremental exercise in highly trained endurance athletes. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2011; 111:1422-30. [PMID: 21885805 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00625.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Human endurance performance can be predicted from maximal oxygen consumption (Vo(2max)), lactate threshold, and exercise efficiency. These physiological parameters, however, are not wholly exclusive from one another, and their interplay is complex. Accordingly, we sought to identify more specific measurements explaining the range of performance among athletes. Out of 150 separate variables we identified 10 principal factors responsible for hematological, cardiovascular, respiratory, musculoskeletal, and neurological variation in 16 highly trained cyclists. These principal factors were then correlated with a 26-km time trial and test of maximal incremental power output. Average power output during the 26-km time trial was attributed to, in order of importance, oxidative phosphorylation capacity of the vastus lateralis muscle (P = 0.0005), steady-state submaximal blood lactate concentrations (P = 0.0017), and maximal leg oxygenation (sO(2LEG)) (P = 0.0295), accounting for 78% of the variation in time trial performance. Variability in maximal power output, on the other hand, was attributed to total body hemoglobin mass (Hb(mass); P = 0.0038), Vo(2max) (P = 0.0213), and sO(2LEG) (P = 0.0463). In conclusion, 1) skeletal muscle oxidative capacity is the primary predictor of time trial performance in highly trained cyclists; 2) the strongest predictor for maximal incremental power output is Hb(mass); and 3) overall exercise performance (time trial performance + maximal incremental power output) correlates most strongly to measures regarding the capability for oxygen transport, high Vo(2max) and Hb(mass), in addition to measures of oxygen utilization, maximal oxidative phosphorylation, and electron transport system capacities in the skeletal muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Jacobs
- Institute of Veterinary Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Hanon C, Rabate M, Thomas C. Effect of expertise on postmaximal long sprint blood metabolite responses. J Strength Cond Res 2011; 25:2503-9. [PMID: 21804425 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0b013e3182001807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to describe and compare the blood metabolic responses obtained after a single maximal exercise in elite and less-successful athletes and to investigate whether these responses are related to sprint performance. Eleven elite (ELI) and 14 regional (REG) long sprint runners performed a 300-m running test as fast as possible. Blood samples were taken at rest and at 4 minutes after exercise for measurements of blood lactate concentration [La] and acid-base status. The blood metabolic responses of ELI subjects compared to those of REG subjects for pH (7.07 ± 0.05 vs. 7.14 ± 1.5), sodium bicarbonate concentration ([HCO(3)(-)], 8.1 ± 1.5 vs. 9.8 ± 1.8 mmol·L(-1)), hemoglobin O(2) saturation (SaO(2)) (94.7 ± 1.8 vs. 96.2 ± 1.6%) were significantly lower (p < 0.05), and [La] was significantly higher in ELI (21.1 ± 2.9 vs. 19.1 ± 1.2 mmol·L(-1), p < 0.05). The 300-m performance (in % world record) was negatively correlated with pH (r = -0.55, p < 0.01), SaO2 (r = -0.64, p < 0.001), [HCO(3)(-)] (r = -0.40, p < 0.05), and positively correlated with [La] (r = 0.44, p < 0.05). In conclusion, for the same quantity of work, the best athletes are able to strongly alter their blood acid-base balance compared to underperforming runners, with larger acidosis and lactate accumulation. To obtain the pH limits with acute maximal exercise, coaches must have their athletes perform a distance run with duration of exercise superior to 35 seconds. The blood lactate accumulation values (mmol·L(-1)·s(-1)) recorded in this study indicate that the maximal glycolysis rate obtained in the literature from short sprint distances is maintained, but not increased, until 35 seconds of exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Hanon
- Laboratory of Biomechanics and Physiology, French National Institute of Sports (INSEP), Paris, France.
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Baguet A, Everaert I, De Naeyer H, Reyngoudt H, Stegen S, Beeckman S, Achten E, Vanhee L, Volkaert A, Petrovic M, Taes Y, Derave W. Effects of sprint training combined with vegetarian or mixed diet on muscle carnosine content and buffering capacity. Eur J Appl Physiol 2011; 111:2571-80. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-011-1877-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2011] [Accepted: 02/14/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Tanisho K, Hirakawa K. Training effects on endurance capacity in maximal intermittent exercise: comparison between continuous and interval training. J Strength Cond Res 2010; 23:2405-10. [PMID: 19826281 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0b013e3181bac790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of 2 different training regimens, continuous (CT) and interval (IT), on endurance capacity in maximal intermittent exercise. Eighteen lacrosse players were divided into CT (n = 6), IT (n = 6), and nontraining (n = 6) groups. Both training groups trained for 3 days per week for 15 weeks using bicycle ergometers. Continuous training performed continuous aerobic training for 20-25 minutes, and IT performed high-intensity pedaling comprising 10 sets of 10-second maximal pedaling with 20-second recovery periods. Maximal anaerobic power, maximal oxygen uptake (V(O2max)), and intermittent power output were measured before and after the training period. The intermittent exercise test consisted of a set of ten 10-second maximal sprints with 40-second intervals. Maximal anaerobic power significantly increased in IT (p <or= 0.05), whereas V(O2max) increased in both training groups (p <or= 0.05). In the intermittent exercise test, the average of the total mean power output (1-10 sets) increased in both training groups (p <or= 0.05); however, the mean power output in the last stage (8-10 sets) and fatigability improved only in IT. Consequently, continuous aerobic training reduced lactate production and increased the mean power output, but there was little effect on high-power endurance capacity in maximal intermittent exercise. In contrast, although lactate production did not decrease, IT improved fatigability and mean power output in the last stage. These results indicated that the endurance capacities for maximal intermittent and continuous exercises were not identical. Ball game players should therefore improve their endurance capacity with high-intensity intermittent exercise, and it is insufficient to assess their capacity with only V(O2max) or continuous exercise tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kei Tanisho
- Department of Sports Sciences, Japan Institute of Sports Sciences, Kobe, Japan.
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Kendall KL, Smith AE, Graef JL, Fukuda DH, Moon JR, Beck TW, Cramer JT, Stout JR. Effects of Four Weeks of High-Intensity Interval Training and Creatine Supplementation on Critical Power and Anaerobic Working Capacity in College-Aged Men. J Strength Cond Res 2009; 23:1663-9. [DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0b013e3181b1fd1f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Respiratory compensation and blood pH regulation during variable intensity exercise in trained versus untrained subjects. Eur J Appl Physiol 2009; 107:83-93. [PMID: 19513741 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-009-1101-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/24/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
To determine whether endurance-trained cyclists (T; n = 10) have a superior blood-respiratory buffering for metabolic acidosis relative to untrained subjects (UT; n = 10) during variable intensity exercise (VAR). On three occasions, T and UT pedaled for 24 min alternating high- and low-intensities as percentage of their second ventilatory threshold (VT2): VAR(LOW) 87.5-37.5% VT2, VAR(MODERATE) 125-25% VT2, and VAR(HIGH) 162.5-12.5% VT2 to complete the same amount of work. Before and just after each VAR trial, maximal cycling power (P(MAX)) was assessed. For each trial, the respiratory compensation for exercise acidosis (ventilatory equivalent for CO2) and the final blood pH, lactate and bicarbonate concentrations were similar for T and UT subjects. However, after VAR(HIGH), UT reduced P(MAX) (-14 +/- 1%; P < 0.05) while T did not. Our data suggest that endurance training confers adaptations to withstand the low pH provoked by VAR without losing cycling power, although this response is not due to differences in blood-respiratory buffering.
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Layec G, Bringard A, Vilmen C, Micallef JP, Le Fur Y, Perrey S, Cozzone PJ, Bendahan D. Does oxidative capacity affect energy cost? An in vivo MR investigation of skeletal muscle energetics. Eur J Appl Physiol 2009; 106:229-42. [PMID: 19255774 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-009-1012-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/05/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Investigations of training effects on exercise energy cost have yielded conflicting results. The purpose of the present study was to compare quadriceps energy cost and oxidative capacity between endurance-trained and sedentary subjects during a heavy dynamic knee extension exercise. We quantified the rates of ATP turnover from oxidative and anaerobic pathways with (31)P-MRS, and we measured simultaneously pulmonary oxygen uptake in order to assess both total ATP production [i.e., energy cost (EC)] and O(2) consumption (O(2) cost) scaled to power output. Seven sedentary (SED) and seven endurance-trained (TRA) subjects performed a dynamic standardized rest-exercise-recovery protocol at an exercise intensity corresponding to 35% of maximal voluntary contraction. We showed that during a dynamic heavy exercise, the O(2) cost and EC were similar in the SED and endurance-trained groups. For a given EC, endurance-trained subjects exhibited a higher relative mitochondrial contribution to ATP production at the muscle level (84 +/- 12% in TRA and 57 +/- 12% in SED; P < 0.01) whereas the anaerobic contribution was reduced (18 +/- 12% in TRA and 44 +/- 11% in SED; P < 0.01). Our results obtained in vivo illustrate that on the one hand the beneficial effects of endurance training are not related to any reduction in EC or O(2) cost and on the other hand that this similar EC was linked to a change regarding the contribution of anaerobic and oxidative processes to energy production, i.e., a greater aerobic energy contribution associated with a concomitant reduction of the anaerobic energy supply.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gwenael Layec
- Centre de Resonance Magnetique Biologique et Medicale, Faculté de Médecine de Marseille, UMR CNRS 6612, 27 Bd Jean Moulin, 13005, Marseille, France
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Abstract
Abstract
With increasing age, it appears that masters athletes competing in anaerobic events (10–100 s) decline linearly in performance until 70 years of age, after which the rate of decline appears to accelerate. This decline in performance appears strongly related to a decreased anaerobic work capacity, which has been observed in both sedentary and well-trained older individuals. Previously, a number of factors have been suggested to influence anaerobic work capacity including gender, muscle mass, muscle fiber type, muscle fiber size, muscle architecture and strength, substrate availability, efficiency of metabolic pathways, accumulation of reaction products, aerobic energy contribution, heredity, and physical training. The effects of sedentary aging on these factors have been widely discussed within literature. Less data are available on the changes in these factors in masters athletes who have continued to train at high intensities with the aim of participating in competition. The available research has reported that these masters athletes still demonstrate age-related changes in these factors. Specifically, it appears that morphological (decreased muscle mass, type II muscle fiber atrophy), muscle contractile property (decreased rate of force development), and biochemical changes (changes in enzyme activity, decreased lactate production) may explain the decreased anaerobic performance in masters athletes. However, the reduction in anaerobic work capacity and subsequent performance may largely be the result of physiological changes that are an inevitable result of the aging process, although their effects may be minimized by continuing specific high-intensity resistance or sprint training.
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Bishop D, Edge J, Thomas C, Mercier J. Effects of high-intensity training on muscle lactate transporters and postexercise recovery of muscle lactate and hydrogen ions in women. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2008; 295:R1991-8. [PMID: 18832090 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00863.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of high-intensity interval training (3 days/wk for 5 wk), provoking large changes in muscle lactate and pH, on changes in intracellular buffer capacity (betam(in vitro)), monocarboxylate transporters (MCTs), and the decrease in muscle lactate and hydrogen ions (H+) after exercise in women. Before and after training, biopsies of the vastus lateralis were obtained at rest and immediately after and 60 s after 45 s of exercise at 190% of maximal O2 uptake. Muscle samples were analyzed for ATP, phosphocreatine (PCr), lactate, and H+; MCT1 and MCT4 relative abundance and betam(in vitro) were also determined in resting muscle only. Training provoked a large decrease in postexercise muscle pH (pH 6.81). After training, there was a significant decrease in betam(in vitro) (-11%) and no significant change in relative abundance of MCT1 (96 +/- 12%) or MCT4 (120 +/- 21%). During the 60-s recovery after exercise, training was associated with no change in the decrease in muscle lactate, a significantly smaller decrease in muscle H+, and increased PCr resynthesis. These results suggest that increases in betam(in vitro) and MCT relative abundance are not linked to the degree of muscle lactate and H+ accumulation during training. Furthermore, training that is very intense may actually lead to decreases in betam(in vitro). The smaller postexercise decrease in muscle H+ after training is a further novel finding and suggests that training that results in a decrease in H+ accumulation and an increase in PCr resynthesis can actually reduce the decrease in muscle H+ during the recovery from supramaximal exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Bishop
- School of Human Movement and Exercise Science, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia.
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Iaia FM, Thomassen M, Kolding H, Gunnarsson T, Wendell J, Rostgaard T, Nordsborg N, Krustrup P, Nybo L, Hellsten Y, Bangsbo J. Reduced volume but increased training intensity elevates muscle Na+-K+ pump α1-subunit and NHE1 expression as well as short-term work capacity in humans. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2008; 294:R966-74. [DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00666.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The present study examined muscle adaptations and alterations in work capacity in endurance-trained runners after a change from endurance to sprint training. Fifteen runners were assigned to either a sprint training (ST, n = 8) or a control (CON, n = 7) group. ST replaced their normal training by 30-s sprint runs three to four times a week, whereas CON continued the endurance training (∼45 km/wk). After the 4-wk sprint period, the expression of the muscle Na+-K+ pump α1-subunit and Na+/H+-exchanger isoform 1 was 29 and 30% higher ( P < 0.05), respectively. Furthermore, plasma K+ concentration was reduced ( P < 0.05) during repeated intense running. In ST, performance in a 30-s sprint test, Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test, and two supramaximal exhaustive runs was improved ( P < 0.05) by 7, 19, 27, and 19%, respectively, after the sprint training period, whereas pulmonary maximum oxygen uptake and 10-k time were unchanged. No changes in CON were observed. The present data suggest a role of the Na+-K+ pump in the control of K+ homeostasis and in the development of fatigue during repeated high-intensity exercise. Furthermore, performance during intense exercise can be improved and endurance performance maintained even with a reduction in training volume if the intensity of training is very high.
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31
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Minahan C, Wood C. Strength training improves supramaximal cycling but not anaerobic capacity. Eur J Appl Physiol 2007; 102:659-66. [PMID: 18071742 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-007-0641-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/25/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
This study examined supramaximal cycling performed to exhaustion at 120% of peak O(2) uptake (120% VO(2)peak) before and after 8 weeks of strength training. Eight previously untrained men completed 8 weeks of leg-strength training 3 days week(-1) on a hack-squat machine; four sets, five repetitions at 85% of one repetition maximum each session. Anaerobic capacity was quantified by determining the maximal accumulated O(2) deficit during supramaximal cycling. After 8 weeks of strength training, one repetition maximum for the hack squat significantly increased by 90 +/- 33% when compared to before training. However, 8 weeks of strength training did not increase the maximal accumulated O(2) deficit. Nevertheless, after 8 weeks of strength training, there was a significant increase in time to exhaustion for cycling at 120% VO(2)peak. The increase in time to exhaustion after 8 weeks of strength training was accompanied by a significant increase in accumulated O(2) uptake. In conclusion, 8 weeks of strength training improves supramaximal cycling performance in previously untrained subjects. However, increases in time to exhaustion for supramaximal cycling following strength training are associated with an increase in the contribution of the aerobic energy system rather than an improvement in anaerobic capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare Minahan
- School of Physiotherapy and Exercise Science, Gold Coast campus, Griffith University, PMB 50 Gold Coast Mail Centre, Gold Coast, QLD 9726, Australia.
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Meyerspeer M, Kemp GJ, Mlynárik V, Krššák M, Szendroedi J, Nowotny P, Roden M, Moser E. Direct noninvasive quantification of lactate and high energy phosphates simultaneously in exercising human skeletal muscle by localized magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Magn Reson Med 2007; 57:654-60. [PMID: 17390348 PMCID: PMC4876926 DOI: 10.1002/mrm.21188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2006] [Accepted: 12/17/2006] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
A novel method based on interleaved localized 31P- and 1H MRS is presented, by which lactate accumulation and the accompanying changes in high energy phosphates in human skeletal muscle can be monitored simultaneously during exercise and recovery. Lactate is quantified using a localized double quantum filter suppressing the abundant lipid signals while taking into account orientation dependent signal modulations. Lactate concentration after ischemic exercise directly quantified by DQF 1H spectroscopy was 24 +/- 3 mmol/L cell water, while 22 +/- 3 mmol/L was expected on the basis of 31P MRS acquired simultaneously. Lactate concentration in a sample of porcine meat was estimated to be 40 +/- 7 mmol/L by means of DQF quantitation, versus 39 +/- 5 mmol/L by biochemical methods. Excellent agreement is shown between lactate concentrations measured noninvasively by 1H MRS, measured biochemically ex vivo, and inferred indirectly in vivo from changes in pH, P(i), and PCr as obtained from 31P MRS data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Meyerspeer
- MR Centre of Excellence, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
- Center for Biomedical Engineering and Physics, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
| | - Graham J. Kemp
- Division of Metabolic and Cellular Medicine, School of Clinical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Vladimir Mlynárik
- MR Centre of Excellence, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
- Center for Biomedical Engineering and Physics, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
| | - Martin Krššák
- MR Centre of Excellence, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
- Department of Internal Medicine III, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
| | - Julia Szendroedi
- Department of Internal Medicine III, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
- Karl-Landsteiner Institute of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Vienna, Austria
| | - Peter Nowotny
- Department of Internal Medicine III, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Roden
- Department of Internal Medicine III, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
- Karl-Landsteiner Institute of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Vienna, Austria
- 1st Med. Department, Hanusch Hospital Vienna, Austria
| | - Ewald Moser
- MR Centre of Excellence, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
- Center for Biomedical Engineering and Physics, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
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Bishop D, Edge J, Thomas C, Mercier J. High-intensity exercise acutely decreases the membrane content of MCT1 and MCT4 and buffer capacity in human skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2007; 102:616-21. [PMID: 17082373 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00590.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The regulation of intracellular pH during intense muscle contractions occurs via a number of different transport systems [e.g., monocarboxylate transporters (MCTs)] and via intracellular buffering (βmin vitro). The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of an acute bout of high-intensity exercise on both MCT relative abundance and βmin vitro in humans. Six active women volunteered for this study. Biopsies of the vastus lateralis were obtained at rest and immediately after 45 s of exercise at 200% of maximum O2 uptake. βmin vitro was determined by titration, and MCT relative abundance was determined in membrane preparations by Western blots. High-intensity exercise was associated with a significant decrease in both MCT1 (−24%) and MCT4 (−26%) and a decrease in βmin vitro (−11%; 135 ± 3 to 120 ± 2 μmol H+·g dry muscle−1·pH−1; P < 0.05). These changes were consistently observed in all subjects, and there was a significant correlation between changes in MCT1 and MCT4 relative abundance ( R2 = 0.92; P < 0.05). In conclusion, a single bout of high-intensity exercise decreased both MCT relative abundance in membrane preparations and βmin vitro. Until the time course of these changes has been established, researchers should consider the possibility that observed training-induced changes in MCT and βmin vitro may be influenced by the acute effects of the last exercise bout, if the biopsy is taken soon after the completion of the training program. The implications that these findings have for lactate (and H+) transport following acute, exhaustive exercise warrant further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Bishop
- School of Human Movement and Exercise Science, The Univ. of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia.
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Denis C, Linossler MT, Dormols D, Padilla S, Geyssant A, Lacour JR, Inbar O. Power and metabolic responses during supramaximal exercise in 100-m and 800-m runners. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2007. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.1992.tb00321.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Hinckson EA, Hopkins WG. Changes in running endurance performance following intermittent altitude exposure simulated with tents. Eur J Sport Sci 2006. [DOI: 10.1080/17461390500077301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Erica A. Hinckson
- a New Zealand Institute of Sport and Recreation Research , Auckland University of Technology , Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Will G. Hopkins
- a New Zealand Institute of Sport and Recreation Research , Auckland University of Technology , Auckland, New Zealand
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37
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Korhonen MT, Suominen H, Mero A. Age and sex differences in blood lactate response to sprint running in elite master athletes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 30:647-65. [PMID: 16485517 DOI: 10.1139/h05-146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The effect of age and sex on anaerobic glycolytic capacity in master athletes is currently unclear. To study this issue, we determined blood lactate concentrations after competitive sprint running in male and female master athletes of different age. Eighty-one men (40-88 yrs) and 75 women (35-87 yrs) participating in the sprint events (100-m, 200-m, 400-m) in the European Veterans Athletics Championships were studied. Blood samples were taken from the fingertip and analysed for peak lactate concentration ([La]bpeak). The [La]bpeak following 100-m to 400-m races showed a curvilinear decline (p < 0.001-0.05) with age in both men and women. However, the age related differences in the [La]b peak were not significant before 70 years of age. No significant sex related differences were found in [La]b peak for any sprint event. The [La]b peak correlated significantly (p < 0.001-0.05) with running times in all sprint distances except for the age-controlled correlation in men for the 100-m and 200-m. In conclusion, the present study showed age but not sex differences in blood lactate response to competitive sprint running in master athletes. Although the [La]b peak level of the athletes was considerably higher than that reported for untrained men and women, these cross-sectional findings suggest that anaerobic energy production from glycolysis declines in later years and may be a factor in the deterioration in sprint performance.
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38
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Edge J, Bishop D, Goodman C, Dawson B. Effects of high- and moderate-intensity training on metabolism and repeated sprints. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2006; 37:1975-82. [PMID: 16286869 DOI: 10.1249/01.mss.0000175855.35403.4c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE We compared the effects of high-intensity interval (HIT) and moderate-intensity continuous (MIT) training (matched for total work) on changes in repeated-sprint ability (RSA) and muscle metabolism. METHODS Pre- and posttraining, VO(2peak), lactate threshold (LT), and RSA (5 x 6-s sprints, every 30 s) were assessed in 20 females. Before and immediately after the RSA test, muscle biopsies were taken from the vastus lateralis. Subjects were matched on RSA, randomly placed into the HIT (N = 10) or MIT (N = 10) group and performed 5 wk (3 d.wk(-1)) of cycle training; performing either HIT (6-10, 2-min intervals at 120-140% LT) or MIT (continuous, 20-30 min at 80-95% LT). RESULTS Both groups had significant improvements in VO(2peak) (10-12%; P < 0.05) and LT (8-10%; P < 0.05), with no significant differences between them. Both groups also had significant increases in RSA total work (kJ) (P < 0.05), with a significantly greater increase following HIT than MIT (13 vs 8.5%, respectively; P < 0.05). There was a significant decrease in resting [ATP] and an increase in postexercise [La(-)](b) for both groups, but no significant differences between them. There were no significant changes in resting or postexercise [PCr], [Cr], muscle [La(-)], or [H(+)] after the training period. CONCLUSIONS When total work is matched, HIT results in greater improvements in RSA than MIT. This results from an improved ability to maintain performance during consecutive sprints, which is not explained by differences in work done during the first sprint, aerobic fitness or metabolite accumulation at the end of the sprints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johann Edge
- School of Human Movement and Exercise Science, The University of Western Australia, Perth
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Edge J, Bishop D, Goodman C. The effects of training intensity on muscle buffer capacity in females. Eur J Appl Physiol 2005; 96:97-105. [PMID: 16283370 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-005-0068-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/19/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We examined changes in muscle buffer capacity (beta m(in vitro)), VO2peak and the lactate threshold (LT) after 5 weeks of high-intensity interval training (INT) above the LT or moderate-intensity continuous training (CON) just below the LT. Prior to and immediately after training, 16 female subjects performed a graded exercise test to determine VO2peak and the LT, followed 2 days later by a resting muscle biopsy from the vastus lateralis muscle to determine beta m(in vitro). Following baseline testing, the subjects were randomly placed into the INT (n=8) or CON training group (n=8). Subjects then performed 5 weeks of cycle training (3 days per week), performing either high-intensity INT (6-10x2 min at 120-140% LT with 1 min rest) or moderate-intensity CON (80-95% LT) training. Total training volume was matched between the two groups. After the training period, both groups had significant improvements in VO2peak (12-14%; P<0.05) and the LT (7-10%; P<0.05), with no significant differences between groups. The INT group, however, had significantly greater improvements in beta m(in vitro) (25%; 123+/-5-153+/-7 micromol H+ x g muscle dm(-1) x pH(-1); P<0.05) than the CON group (2%; 130+/-12-133+/-7 micromol H+ x g muscle dm(-1) x pH(-1), P>0.05). Our results show that when matched for training volume, high-intensity interval training above the LT results in similar improvements in VO2peak and the LT, but greater improvements in beta m(in vitro) than moderate-intensity continuous training below the LT. This suggests that training intensity is an important determinant of changes to beta m(in vitro).
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Affiliation(s)
- Johann Edge
- Team Sport Research Group, School of Human Movement and Exercise Science, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia
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Edg E J, Bishop D, Hill-Haas S, Dawson B, Goodman C. Comparison of muscle buffer capacity and repeated-sprint ability of untrained, endurance-trained and team-sport athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 2005; 96:225-34. [PMID: 16235069 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-005-0056-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/16/2005] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We measured the muscle buffer capacity (betam) and repeated-sprint ability (RSA) of young females, who were either team-sport athletes (n = 7), endurance trained (n = 6) or untrained but physically active (n = 8). All subjects performed a graded exercise test to determine VO(2peak) followed 2 days later by a cycle test of RSA (5 x 6 s, every 30 s). Resting muscle samples (Vastus lateralis) were taken to determine betam. The team-sport group had a significantly higher betam than either the endurance-trained or the untrained groups (181+/- 27 vs. 148 +/- 11 vs. 122 +/- 32 micromol H(+) g dm(-1) pH(-1) respectively; P < 0.05). The team-sport group also completed significantly more relative total work (299 +/- 27 vs. 263 +/- 31 vs. 223 +/- 21 J kg(-1), respectively; P < 0.05) and absolute total work (18.2 +/- 1.6 vs. 14.6 +/- 2.4 vs. 13.0 +/- 1.9 kJ, respectively; P < 0.05) than the endurance-trained or untrained groups during the RSA test. The team-sport group also had a greater post-exercise blood lactate concentration, but not blood pH. There was a significant correlation between betam and RSA (r = 0.67; P < 0.05). Our findings show that young females competing in team sports have a larger betam than either endurance-trained or untrained females. This may be the result of the intermittent, high-intensity activity during training and the match play of team-sport athletes. The team-sport athletes also had a greater RSA than either the endurance-trained or untrained subjects. The greater total work by team-sport athletes was predominantly due to a better performance during the early sprints of the repeated-sprint bout.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johann Edg E
- Team Spart Research Group, School of Human Movement and Exercise Science, The University of Western Australia, Perth
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Parcell AC, Sawyer RD, Drummond MJ, O'Neil B, Miller N, Woolstenhulme MT. Single-Fiber MHC Polymorphic Expression Is Unaffected by Sprint Cycle Training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005; 37:1133-7. [PMID: 16015129 DOI: 10.1249/01.mss.0000170123.27209.e1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The present investigation examined single-fiber MHC alterations in response to high-intensity, short-duration, sprint cycle training. METHODS Ten untrained college-age male subjects participated in 8 wk of a progressive sprint cycle training program. Training involved 15-s maximal sprints separated by 5 min of rest beginning with four sprints x 2 d in week 1 and increasing to six sprints x 3 d at week 8. Muscle samples from the vastus lateralis were obtained before and after training. A 30-s sprint cycle test was used to evaluate performance before and after training. RESULTS For the 30-s sprint, mean power and total work increased from pre to post. Single-fiber analyses revealed a reduction in the MHC IIx isoform (2.0 +/- 1.0 to 0.2 +/- 0.1%, pre to post, P < 0.05) and an increase in MHC IIa (P = 0.08), whereas there was no change in hybrid fiber composition (total hybrids = 24%). Generally, MHC IIa content increased and MHC IIx decreased (P < 0.05) as demonstrated by homogenate analyses of tissue samples. CONCLUSIONS We report that as little as 32 min of high-intensity sprint cycle training over 8 wk is sufficient to improve sprinting performance. This training response is accompanied by an increase in MHC IIa and reduction in MHC IIx content of the vastus lateralis. However, short-duration, high-intensity, sprint cycle training does not cause a reduction in hybrid muscle fiber content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allen C Parcell
- Department of Exercise Sciences, Human Performance Research Center, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA.
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Cerretelli P, Samaja M. Acid-base balance at exercise in normoxia and in chronic hypoxia. Revisiting the "lactate paradox". Eur J Appl Physiol 2003; 90:431-48. [PMID: 14504942 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-003-0928-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/25/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Transitions between rest and work, in either direction, and heavy exercise loads are characterized by changes of muscle pH depending on the buffer power and capacity of the tissues and on the metabolic processes involved. Among the latter, in chronological sequence: (1). aerobic glycolysis generates sizeable amounts of lactate and H(+) by way of the recently described, extremely fast (20-100 ms) "glycogen shunt" and of the excess of glycolytic pyruvate supply; (2). hydrolysis of phosphocreatine, tightly coupled with that of ATP in the Lohmann reaction, is known to consume protons, a process undergoing reversal during recovery; (3). anaerobic glycolysis sustaining ATP production in supramaximal exercise as well as in conditions of hypoxia and ischemia, is responsible for the accumulation of large amounts of lactic acid (up to 1 mol for the whole body). The handling of metabolic acids, i.e., acid-base regulation, occurs both in blood and in tissues, mainly in muscles which are the main producers and consumers of lactic acid. The role of both blood and muscle bicarbonate and non-bicarbonate buffers as well as that of lactate/H(+) cotransport mechanisms is analyzed in relation to acid-base homeostasis in the course of exercise. A section of the review deals with the analysis of the acid-base state of humans exposed to chronic hypoxia. Particular emphasis is put on anaerobic glycolysis. In this context, the so-called lactate paradox is revisited and interpreted on the basis of the most recent findings on exercise at altitude.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Cerretelli
- Department of Sciences and Biomedical Technologies, LITA, University of Milan, Via F lli Cervi 93, 20090, SEGRATE, Milano, Italy.
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Abstract
Beginning in 1910, A. V. Hill performed careful experiments on the time course of heat production in isolated frog muscle. His research paralleled that of the German biochemist Otto Meyerhof, who measured the changes in muscle glycogen and lactate during contractions and recovery. For their work in discovering the distinction between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism, Hill and Meyerhof were jointly awarded the 1922 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. Because of Hill's interest in athletics, he sought to apply the concepts discovered in isolated frog muscle to the exercising human. Hill and his colleagues made measurements of O(2) consumption on themselves and other subjects running around an 85-m grass track. In the process of this work, they defined the terms "maximum O(2) intake," "O(2) requirement," and "steady state of exercise." Other contributions of Hill include his discoveries of heat production in nerve, the series elastic component, and the force-velocity equation in muscle. Around the time of World War II, Hill was a leading figure in the Academic Assistance Council, which helped Jewish scientists fleeing Nazi Germany to relocate in the West. He served as a member of the British Parliament from 1940 to 1945 and as a scientific advisor to India. Hill's vision and enthusiasm attracted many scientists to the field of exercise physiology, and he pointed the way toward many of the physiological adaptations that occur with physical training.
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Affiliation(s)
- David R Bassett
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA.
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Abstract
In previously untrained individuals, endurance training improves peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), increases capillary density of working muscle, raises blood volume and decreases heart rate during exercise at the same absolute intensity. In contrast, sprint training has a greater effect on muscle glyco(geno)lytic capacity than on muscle mitochondrial content. Sprint training invariably raises the activity of one or more of the muscle glyco(geno)lytic or related enzymes and enhances sarcolemmal lactate transport capacity. Some groups have also reported that sprint training transforms muscle fibre types, but these data are conflicting and not supported by any consistent alteration in sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase activity or muscle physicochemical H+ buffering capacity. While the adaptations to training have been studied extensively in previously sedentary individuals, far less is known about the responses to high-intensity interval training (HIT) in already highly trained athletes. Only one group has systematically studied the reported benefits of HIT before competition. They found that >or=6 HIT sessions, was sufficient to maximally increase peak work rate (W(peak)) values and simulated 40 km time-trial (TT(40)) speeds of competitive cyclists by 4 to 5% and 3.0 to 3.5%, respectively. Maximum 3.0 to 3.5% improvements in TT(40) cycle rides at 75 to 80% of W(peak) after HIT consisting of 4- to 5-minute rides at 80 to 85% of W(peak) supported the idea that athletes should train for competition at exercise intensities specific to their event. The optimum reduction or 'taper' in intense training to recover from exhaustive exercise before a competition is poorly understood. Most studies have shown that 20 to 80% single-step reductions in training volume over 1 to 4 weeks have little effect on exercise performance, and that it is more important to maintain training intensity than training volume. Progressive 30 to 75% reductions in pool training volume over 2 to 4 weeks have been shown to improve swimming performances by 2 to 3%. Equally rapid exponential tapers improved 5 km running times by up to 6%. We found that a 50% single-step reduction in HIT at 70% of W(peak) produced peak approximately 6% improvements in simulated 100 km time-trial performances after 2 weeks. It is possible that the optimum taper depends on the intensity of the athletes' preceding training and their need to recover from exhaustive exercise to compete. How the optimum duration of a taper is influenced by preceding training intensity and percentage reduction in training volume warrants investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuko N Kubukeli
- Medical Research Council/University of Cape Town Research Unit on Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, Sports Science Institute of South Africa, Newlands, Cape Town, South Africa.
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Parcell AC, Sawyer RD, Tricoli VA, Chinevere TD. Minimum rest period for strength recovery during a common isokinetic testing protocol. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002; 34:1018-22. [PMID: 12048331 DOI: 10.1097/00005768-200206000-00018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The intent of this investigation was to determine the minimal time for a between sets rest period during a common isokinetic knee extension strength-testing protocol. Based on a review of the literature, a set was considered a group of four maximal coupled contractions at a specific velocity. METHODS Eleven normal, healthy college-age men underwent unilateral knee extension testing to determine their individual isokinetic peak torque at 60, 120, 180, 240, and 300 degrees.s-1. Velocities were administered in ascending order. Between sets, rest periods of 15, 60, 180, and 300 s were assigned to subjects in a counterbalanced fashion. RESULTS There were no differences in peak torque at the beginning velocity of 60 degrees.s-1 among any of the rest periods. At 120 degrees.s-1, peak torque production during the 15-s rest period trial was similar to 60 s but lower than 180 and 300 s. Peak torques at 180, 240, and 300 degrees.s-1 produced during the 15-s rest period test were significantly lower than measured torques at the same velocities during the 60, 180, and 300-s rest period tests (P < 0.05). There were no differences in peak torque production between the 60, 180, and 300-s rest period tests. CONCLUSION These data demonstrate that during a common isokinetic strength testing protocol a between set rest period of at least 60 s is sufficient for recovery before the next test set.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allen C Parcell
- Human Performance Research Center, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA.
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Weber CL, Schneider DA. Increases in maximal accumulated oxygen deficit after high-intensity interval training are not gender dependent. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2002; 92:1795-801. [PMID: 11960926 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00546.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Gender differences in maximal accumulated oxygen deficit (MAOD) were examined before and after 4 and 8 wk of high-intensity interval training. Untrained men (n = 7) and women (n = 7) cycled at 120% of pretraining peak oxygen uptake (VO2 peak) to exhaustion (MAOD test) pre-, mid-, and posttraining. A posttraining timed test was also completed at the MAOD test power output, but this test was stopped at the time to exhaustion achieved during the pretraining MAOD test. The 14.3 +/- 5.2% increase in MAOD observed in men after 4 wk of training was not different from the 14.0 +/- 3.0% increase seen in women (P > 0.05). MAOD increased by a further 6.6 +/- 1.9% in men, and this change was not different from the additional 5.1 +/- 2.3% increase observed in women after the final 4 wk of training. VO2 peak measured during incremental cycling increased significantly (P < 0.01) in male but not in female subjects after 8 wk of training. Moreover, the accumulated oxygen (AO2) uptake was higher in men during the posttraining timed test compared with the pretraining MAOD test (P < 0.01). In contrast, the AO2 uptake was unchanged from pre- to posttraining in female subjects. The increase in MAOD with training was not different between men and women, suggesting an enhanced ability to produce ATP anaerobically in both groups. However, the increase in VO2 peak and AO2 uptake obtained in male subjects after training indicates improved oxidative metabolism in men but not in women. We conclude that there are basic gender differences that may predispose men and women to specific metabolic adaptations after a period of intense interval training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare L Weber
- School of Physiotherapy and Exercise Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland 9726, Australia.
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Hirakoba K, Yunoki T. Blood lactate changes during isocapnic buffering in sprinters and long distance runners. JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND APPLIED HUMAN SCIENCE 2002; 21:143-9. [PMID: 12148456 DOI: 10.2114/jpa.21.143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
This study was carried out to compare blood lactate changes in isocapnic buffering phase in an incremental exercise test between sprinters and long distance runners, and to seek the possibility for predicting aerobic or anaerobic potential from blood lactate changes in isocapnic buffering phase. Gas exchange variables and blood lactate concentration ([lactate]) in six sprinters (SPR) and nine long distance runners (LDR) were measured during an incremental exercise test (30 W.min-1) up to subject's voluntary exhaustion on a cycle ergometer. Using a difference between [lactate] at lactate threshold (LT) and [lactate] at the onset of respiratory compensation phase (RCP) and the peak value of [lactate] obtained during a recovery period from the end of the exercise test, the relative increase in [lactate] during the isocapnic buffering phase ([lactate]ICBP) was assessed. The [lactate] at LT (mean +/- SD) was similar in both groups (1.36 +/- 0.27 for SPR vs. 1.24 +/- 0.24 mmol.l-1 for LDR), while the [lactate] at RCP and the peak value of [lactate] were found to be significantly higher in SPR than in LDR (3.61 +/- 0.33 vs. 2.36 +/- 0.45 mmol.l-1 for RCP, P < 0.001, 10.18 +/- 1.53 vs. 8.10 +/- 1.61 mmol.l-1 for peak, P < 0.05). The [lactate]ICBP showed a significantly higher value in SPR (22.5 +/- 5.9%, P < 0.05) compared to that in LDR (14.2 +/- 5.0%) as a result of a twofold greater increase of [lactate] from LT to RCP (2.25 +/- 0.49 for SPR vs. 1.12 +/- 0.39 mmol.l-1 for LDR). In addition, the [lactate]ICBP inversely correlated with oxygen uptake at LT (VO2LT, r = -0.582, P < 0.05) and maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max, r = -0.644, P < 0.01). The results indicate that the [lactate]ICBP is likely to give an index for the integrated metabolic, respiratory and buffering responses at the initial stage of metabolic acidosis derived from lactate accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kohji Hirakoba
- Department of Human Sciences, Kyushu Institute of Technology.
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Ross A, Leveritt M. Long-term metabolic and skeletal muscle adaptations to short-sprint training: implications for sprint training and tapering. Sports Med 2002; 31:1063-82. [PMID: 11735686 DOI: 10.2165/00007256-200131150-00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The adaptations of muscle to sprint training can be separated into metabolic and morphological changes. Enzyme adaptations represent a major metabolic adaptation to sprint training, with the enzymes of all three energy systems showing signs of adaptation to training and some evidence of a return to baseline levels with detraining. Myokinase and creatine phosphokinase have shown small increases as a result of short-sprint training in some studies and elite sprinters appear better able to rapidly breakdown phosphocreatine (PCr) than the sub-elite. No changes in these enzyme levels have been reported as a result of detraining. Similarly, glycolytic enzyme activity (notably lactate dehydrogenase, phosphofructokinase and glycogen phosphorylase) has been shown to increase after training consisting of either long (>10-second) or short (<10-second) sprints. Evidence suggests that these enzymes return to pre-training levels after somewhere between 7 weeks and 6 months of detraining. Mitochondrial enzyme activity also increases after sprint training, particularly when long sprints or short recovery between short sprints are used as the training stimulus. Morphological adaptations to sprint training include changes in muscle fibre type, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and fibre cross-sectional area. An appropriate sprint training programme could be expected to induce a shift toward type IIa muscle, increase muscle cross-sectional area and increase the sarcoplasmic reticulum volume to aid release of Ca(2+). Training volume and/or frequency of sprint training in excess of what is optimal for an individual, however, will induce a shift toward slower muscle contractile characteristics. In contrast, detraining appears to shift the contractile characteristics towards type IIb, although muscle atrophy is also likely to occur. Muscle conduction velocity appears to be a potential non-invasive method of monitoring contractile changes in response to sprint training and detraining. In summary, adaptation to sprint training is clearly dependent on the duration of sprinting, recovery between repetitions, total volume and frequency of training bouts. These variables have profound effects on the metabolic, structural and performance adaptations from a sprint-training programme and these changes take a considerable period of time to return to baseline after a period of detraining. However, the complexity of the interaction between the aforementioned variables and training adaptation combined with individual differences is clearly disruptive to the transfer of knowledge and advice from laboratory to coach to athlete.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Ross
- School of Human Movement Studies, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia.
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Hinchcliff KW, Lauderdale MA, Dutson J, Geor RJ, Lacombe VA, Taylor LE. High intensity exercise conditioning increases accumulated oxygen deficit of horses. Equine Vet J 2002; 34:9-16. [PMID: 11817558 DOI: 10.2746/042516402776181150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
High intensity exercise is associated with production of energy by both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism. Conditioning by repeated exercise increases the maximal rate of aerobic metabolism, aerobic capacity, of horses, but whether the maximal amount of energy provided by anaerobic metabolism, anaerobic capacity, can be increased by conditioning of horses is unknown. We, therefore, examined the effects of 10 weeks of regular (4-5 days/week) high intensity (92+/-3 % VO2max) exercise on accumulated oxygen deficit of 8 Standardbred horses that had been confined to box stalls for 12 weeks. Exercise conditioning resulted in increases of 17% in VO2max (P<0.001), 11% in the speed at which VO2max was achieved (P = 0.019) and 9% in the speed at 115% of VO2max (P = 0.003). During a high speed exercise test at 115% VO2max, sprint duration was 25% longer (P = 0.047), oxygen demand was 36% greater (P<0.001), oxygen consumption was 38% greater (P<0.001) and accumulated oxygen deficit was 27% higher (P = 0.040) than values before conditioning. VLa4 was 33% higher (P<0.05) after conditioning. There was no effect of conditioning on blood lactate concentration at the speed producing VO2max or at the end of the high speed exercise test. The rate of increase in muscle lactate concentration was greater (P = 0.006) in horses before conditioning. Muscle glycogen concentrations before exercise were 17% higher (P<0.05) after conditioning. Exercise resulted in nearly identical (P = 0.938) reductions in muscle glycogen concentrations before and after conditioning. There was no detectable effect of conditioning on muscle buffering capacity. These results are consistent with a conditioning-induced increase in both aerobic and anaerobic capacity of horses demonstrating that anaerobic capacity of horses can be increased by an appropriate conditioning programme that includes regular, high intensity exercise. Furthermore, increases in anaerobic capacity are not reflected in blood lactate concentrations measured during intense, exhaustive exercise or during recovery from such exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- K W Hinchcliff
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus 43210-1089, USA
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