|
1
|
Moore H, Fillon A, Beaulieu K, Pereira B, Drapeau V, Mathieu ME, Thivel D. The Role of Meal Timing in Appetitive Responses to Acute Exercise in Adolescents with and without Obesity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Nutr 2025; 155:719-728. [PMID: 39800308 DOI: 10.1016/j.tjnut.2025.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2024] [Revised: 12/04/2024] [Accepted: 01/07/2025] [Indexed: 01/30/2025] Open
Abstract
Physical activity has been shown to improve various aspects of metabolic health and is frequently applied as an intervention in the management and prevention of overweight/obesity. Chrono-exercise can be studied in relation to time of day and timing in relation to a meal, which encompasses chronology and duration of the temporal interval, but the latter has received limited attention to date. This brief review and meta-analysis investigates whether the timing of a meal subsequent to acute exercise in children and adolescents with and without overweight/obesity moderates eating behavior and appetite. A quantitative synthesis of 28 controlled trials with 51 distinct conditions (N = 575; median sample size = 15, median age = 13 y, n = 297 overweight/obesity) was performed using multilevel random-effects meta-regressions and restricted splines to test the linear and nonlinear relationships between mean differences in energy intake between exercise and control conditions and the duration of the exercise-test meal interval, and if this moderated by participant weight status or exercise characteristics (i.e., intensity, duration, and method). Commencement of meals occurred from immediately to 3 h after cessation of exercise (median = 30 min, interquartile range = 8 min). The meal interval was not associated with effect sizes overall in the linear and spline analysis (ps = 0.576 and 0.971, respectively). Although there was only an interaction with weight status present in the linear analysis (P < 0.001), the meal interval significantly moderated effect sizes within-study arms with lean participants (ps = 0.006 and 0.019, respectively), but not in those with overweight/obesity (ps = 0.070 and 0.620, respectively) in both analyses. Exercise characteristics did not have an impact on this relationship. Taken together, prescriptions for meal timing may depend on the individual phenotype when seeking to optimize potential anorexigenic effects of acute exercise. This trial was registered at PROSPERO as CRD42021287838. (https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/display_record.php?RecordID=287838).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Halim Moore
- Clermont Auvergne University, Laboratory of the Metabolic Adaptations to Exercise under Physiological and Pathological Conditions (AME2P), CRNH Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France.
| | - Alicia Fillon
- Clermont Auvergne University, Laboratory of the Metabolic Adaptations to Exercise under Physiological and Pathological Conditions (AME2P), CRNH Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France; Observatoire National de l'Activité Physique et de la Sédentarité (ONAPS), Faculty of Medicine, Clermont Auvergne University, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Kristine Beaulieu
- Appetite Control Energy Balance Group, School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Bruno Pereira
- Unit of Biostatistics (DRCI), Clermont-Ferrand University Hospital, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Vicky Drapeau
- Centre de Recherche Interuniversitaire sur la Formation et Profession Enseignante (CRIFPE), Université de Montréal, Québec, Canada; École de Nutrition, Université Laval, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Marie-Eve Mathieu
- School of Kinesiology and Physical Activity Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Canada; Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montréal, Canada
| | - David Thivel
- Clermont Auvergne University, Laboratory of the Metabolic Adaptations to Exercise under Physiological and Pathological Conditions (AME2P), CRNH Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France; International Research Chair Health in Motion, Clermont Auvergne University Foundation, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| |
Collapse
|
|
2
|
Durocher I, Grant DS, Bomhof MR. Gradual increase in energy intake over 8 weeks with voluntary wheel running limits body weight change in male rats. Br J Nutr 2025; 133:567-576. [PMID: 39927497 PMCID: PMC12011546 DOI: 10.1017/s0007114525000194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2024] [Revised: 11/20/2024] [Accepted: 01/15/2025] [Indexed: 02/11/2025]
Abstract
The influence of appetite and energy intake (EI) on energy compensation in response to chronic exercise remains poorly understood. This study examined the temporal impact of habitual exercise on EI and the homeostatic appetite regulators that influence energy compensation. Twelve-week-old male Sprague Dawley rats (n 30) fed an AIN-93M diet were randomised into one of three groups: (1) sedentary control (SED); (2) voluntary wheel exercise (EX) and (3) sedentary, weight-matched to aerobic exercise (SED-WM) for 8 weeks. Measures of EI, body weight and adiposity were assessed. Appetite-regulating hormones acyl ghrelin, active glucagon-like peptide (GLP)-1, leptin and insulin were measured in response to an oral glucose tolerance test. Rats with running wheels completed an average of 192 km over 8 weeks. While EI was initially reduced in EX, EI gradually increased with exercise training after week 1 (P < 0·05). Body weight was lower in EX relative to SED from weeks 3 to 5 but did not differ at the end of the study. Fat mass and long-term satiety hormones leptin and insulin were lower in EX (P < 0·05). No differences were observed in concentrations of the satiety hormone active GLP-1 or the orexigenic hormone acyl ghrelin. Short-term homeostatic regulators of appetite do not appear to be altered with exercise training. The reduction in adiposity and associated decrease in tonic satiety hormones leptin and insulin are likely contributors to the coupling of energy expenditure with EI over time with voluntary exercise.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Durocher
- Department of Kinesiology and Physical Education, University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Dr. W., Lethbridge, ABT1K 3M4, Canada
| | - Daniel S. Grant
- Department of Kinesiology and Physical Education, University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Dr. W., Lethbridge, ABT1K 3M4, Canada
| | - Marc R. Bomhof
- Department of Kinesiology and Physical Education, University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Dr. W., Lethbridge, ABT1K 3M4, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
|
3
|
Xin X, Wang H, Guo Y, Xie J. Effect of long-term exercise on circulating ghrelin in overweight and obese individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Nutr 2025; 12:1518143. [PMID: 39917742 PMCID: PMC11798780 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2025.1518143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2024] [Accepted: 01/03/2025] [Indexed: 02/09/2025] Open
Abstract
Objective Ghrelin, also known as the "hunger hormone," is a pivotal hormone in controlling appetite, and it is the only known gastrointestinal hormone that promotes food intake, contributing to the regulation of energy balance and body weight. However, studies on the long-term effects of exercise on ghrelin levels in obese populations have shown conflicting results. This study aims to summarize RCT experiments exploring changes in ghrelin levels following long-term exercise in obese or overweight individuals through meta-analysis. Methods This study employed meta-analytical techniques, searching databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, and EMBASE, to gather research on exercise and ghrelin. The quality of the studies was assessed according to the Cochrane Handbook standards, and data analysis for ghrelin, BMI, and weight was performed using RevMan 5.4 and Stata 16.0 software. A total of 13 interventions involving 944 participants were included to systematically investigate the regulatory effects of exercise on ghrelin levels in obese and overweight individuals. Meta-analytical results were calculated using standardized mean differences (SMDs). Results Exercise interventions significantly increased ghrelin levels (SMD =1.16, 95% CI = 0.52 to 1.80, p < 0.0001), with high inter-study heterogeneity (I 2 = 90%). Subgroup analysis suggested that RT and AE + RT were more effective than AE. For BMI, exercise led to a significant reduction (SMD = -0.43, 95% CI = -0.69 to -0.16, p = 0.002), with low heterogeneity (I 2 = 21%). Similarly, exercise significantly reduced weight (SMD = -0.54, 95% CI = -0.98 to -0.11, p = 0.01), though with high heterogeneity (I 2 = 75%). These results suggest exercise effectively improves ghrelin levels, BMI, and weight. Conclusion Prolonged exercise interventions demonstrated a statistically significant effect on ghrelin levels. This indicates that exercise interventions can elevate ghrelin levels, which may be associated with reductions in BMI and weight. Systematic review registration https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/, CRD42024588259.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Jun Xie
- Capital University of Physical Education and Sports, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
|
4
|
Vijayan S, Margesan T. Hormonal Imbalance in Obesity and Arthritis: Points of Contact. Curr Rheumatol Rev 2025; 21:182-193. [PMID: 38623986 DOI: 10.2174/0115733971293288240313090945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 02/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Abstract
Obesity is a growing global health crisis intricately connected to various chronic conditions, including arthritis. This paper explores the intricate web of hormonal changes in the context of obesity and their profound influence on the development and progression of arthritis. Hormones, such as leptin, insulin, cortisol, and estrogen, all altered in obesity, play pivotal roles in inflammation, cartilage degradation, mechanical stress, and pain associated with obesity-related arthritis. Additionally, the mechanical stress placed on weight-bearing joints by excess body weight accelerates joint wear and tear, contributing to arthritis. Genetic factors, shared biomarkers, and pathways further link these conditions. Recognizing these connections is vital for healthcare professionals and individuals facing the challenges of obesity and arthritis, offering insights into strategies for prevention, management, and intervention. This comprehensive understanding of the complex interplay between hormonal changes, obesity, and arthritis sheds light on multifaceted mechanisms underlying this intricate relationship.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sukanya Vijayan
- Department of Pharmacognosy, SRM College of Pharmacy, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu, 603203, India
| | - Thirumal Margesan
- Department of Pharmacognosy, SRM College of Pharmacy, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu, 603203, India
| |
Collapse
|
|
5
|
Mendes C, Carvalho M, Bravo J, Martins S, Raimundo A. Possible Interaction Between Physical Exercise and Leptin and Ghrelin Changes Following Roux-en-Y Gastric Bypass in Sarcopenic Obesity Patients-A Pilot Study. Nutrients 2024; 16:3913. [PMID: 39599699 PMCID: PMC11597895 DOI: 10.3390/nu16223913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2024] [Revised: 11/12/2024] [Accepted: 11/13/2024] [Indexed: 11/29/2024] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Leptin and ghrelin are two hormones that play a role in weight homeostasis. Leptin, which is produced primarily by adipocytes and is dependent on body fat mass, suppresses appetite and increases energy expenditure. Conversely, ghrelin is the "hunger hormone", it stimulates appetite and promotes fat storage. Bariatric surgery significantly alters the levels and activity of these hormones, contributing to weight loss and metabolic improvements. Clarifying the interplay between bariatric surgery, weight loss, physical exercise, leptin, and ghrelin is essential in developing comprehensive strategies for optimizing the long-term outcomes for candidates who have undergone bariatric surgery, especially for sarcopenic patients. METHODS This was a randomized controlled study with two groups (n = 22). The patients in both groups had obesity and sarcopenia. A Roux-en-Y-gastric bypass (RYGB) procedure was performed on all patients. The intervention group participated in a structured exercise program three times per week, beginning one month after surgery and lasting 16 weeks. Patient assessment was performed before surgery (baseline) and after the completion of the exercise program. The control group received the usual standard of care and was assessed similarly. RESULTS After surgery, weight, BMI, and lean mass decreased significantly in both groups between the baseline and the second assessment. Leptin levels were not significantly different between baseline and the second assessment in the physical exercise group, but were significantly lower in the control group (p = 0.05). Ghrelin levels increased over time in both groups, but the differences were not significant. When we associated leptin (the dependent variable) with weight (the independent variable), we found that lower weight was associated with lower leptin levels. A similar relationship was also observed between the leptin and sarcopenia parameters (muscle strength and mass), as well as in the bone health parameters (bone mineral density and t-score). Higher ghrelin levels were significantly associated with higher t-scores and z-scores (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION Exercise has been shown to have a significant effect on leptin and ghrelin levels after bariatric surgery. By incorporating regular physical activity into their lifestyle, bariatric patients can optimize their weight loss outcomes and improve their overall health. After the physical exercise protocol, patients in the intervention group revealed more established leptin levels, which may indicate a protected pattern concerning decreased leptin levels. An unfavorable profile was evidenced, according to which greater weight loss, sarcopenia, and osteoporosis were associated with lower leptin levels.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cláudia Mendes
- Unidade Local Saúde Alentejo Central, EPE—Hospital Espírito Santo de Évora, 7000-811 Évora, Portugal
- CRI.COM—Centro Responsabilidade Integrada de Cirurgia da Obesidade e Metabólica, 7000-811 Évora, Portugal
- CHRC—Comprehensive Health Research Centre, Universidade de Évora, 7004-516 Évora, Portugal
- Departamento de Desporto e Saúde, Escola de Saúde e Desenvolvimento Humano, Universidade de Évora, 7004-516 Évora, Portugal
- CBIOS—Research Center for Biosciences & Health Technologie, Universidade Lusófona, 1749-024 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Manuel Carvalho
- Unidade Local Saúde Alentejo Central, EPE—Hospital Espírito Santo de Évora, 7000-811 Évora, Portugal
- CRI.COM—Centro Responsabilidade Integrada de Cirurgia da Obesidade e Metabólica, 7000-811 Évora, Portugal
| | - Jorge Bravo
- CHRC—Comprehensive Health Research Centre, Universidade de Évora, 7004-516 Évora, Portugal
- Departamento de Desporto e Saúde, Escola de Saúde e Desenvolvimento Humano, Universidade de Évora, 7004-516 Évora, Portugal
| | - Sandra Martins
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
- Departamento de Desporto, Universidade Europeia, 1500-210 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Armando Raimundo
- CHRC—Comprehensive Health Research Centre, Universidade de Évora, 7004-516 Évora, Portugal
- Departamento de Desporto e Saúde, Escola de Saúde e Desenvolvimento Humano, Universidade de Évora, 7004-516 Évora, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
|
6
|
Okada TE, Jeromson S, Rathwell S, Wright DC, Bomhof MR. Aerobic exercise elevates perceived appetite but does not modify energy intake over a 3-day postexercise period: A pilot study. Physiol Rep 2024; 12:e70066. [PMID: 39328151 PMCID: PMC11427932 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.70066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2024] [Revised: 09/16/2024] [Accepted: 09/16/2024] [Indexed: 09/28/2024] Open
Abstract
While a low degree of energy compensation is typically reported over the 24 h following a session of exercise, the prolonged impact of a bout of exercise on energy intake remains unclear. To overcome the challenge associated with accurately measuring energy intake in a free-living environment, this study employed the use of a meal replacement beverage to assess the 3 day impact of an exercise session on energy intake. In a randomized, crossover study, 14 participants (8 male, 6 female) completed two trials: (1) EX: 75 min exercise on a motorized treadmill (75% VO2peak); and (2) SED: 75 min sedentary control session. Each condition was followed by 3 days of exclusive ad libitum consumption of a meal replacement beverage. Appetite-regulating hormones, subjective appetite, energy intake, and energy expenditure were assessed. Exercise transiently suppressed the orexigenic hormone acyl-ghrelin (p < 0.05) and elevated the appetite-supressing hepatokine GDF-15 (p < 0.05). Despite these acute changes, overall perceived appetite was elevated over the 3 day assessment period with exercise (p < 0.05). No increase in energy intake or change in postexercise physical activity patterns were observed. One acute session of moderate to vigorous exercise is unlikely to affect short-term, three-day energy balance in healthy individuals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tetsuro E. Okada
- Department of Kinesiology and Physical EducationUniversity of LethbridgeLethbridgeAlbertaCanada
| | - Stewart Jeromson
- School of KinesiologyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBritish ColumbiaCanada
| | - Scott Rathwell
- Department of Kinesiology and Physical EducationUniversity of LethbridgeLethbridgeAlbertaCanada
| | - David C. Wright
- School of KinesiologyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBritish ColumbiaCanada
- Faculty of Land and Food SystemsUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBritish ColumbiaCanada
- BC Children's Hospital Research InstituteVancouverBritish ColumbiaCanada
| | - Marc R. Bomhof
- Department of Kinesiology and Physical EducationUniversity of LethbridgeLethbridgeAlbertaCanada
| |
Collapse
|
|
7
|
Mitoiu BI, Nartea R, Miclaus RS. Impact of Resistance and Endurance Training on Ghrelin and Plasma Leptin Levels in Overweight and Obese Subjects. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:8067. [PMID: 39125635 PMCID: PMC11311634 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25158067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2024] [Revised: 07/21/2024] [Accepted: 07/22/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Exercise training is a valuable tool for improving body weight and composition in overweight or obese adults, which leads to a negative energy balance. It is relevant to consider whether exercise can help people lose weight or prevent weight gain because any energy expended in exercise increases the severity of hunger and promotes food consumption. Over the past decade, the identification of the circulating peptide ghrelin, which alerts the brain to the body's nutritional state, has significantly expanded our understanding of this homeostatic mechanism that controls appetite and body weight. To shed more light on this issue, we decided to investigate the effects of resistance and endurance training on plasma ghrelin and leptin levels. In addition, we sought to understand the mechanisms by which acute and chronic exercise can regulate hunger. This review analyzes studies published in the last fifteen years that focused on changes suffered by ghrelin, leptin, or both after physical exercise in overweight or obese individuals. Most studies have shown a decrease in leptin levels and an increase in ghrelin levels in these cases. Exercise regimens that support weight maintenance need further investigation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brindusa Ilinca Mitoiu
- Clinical Department 9, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania
- Prof. Dr. Agrippa Ionescu Clinical Emergency Hospital, 077016 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Roxana Nartea
- Clinical Department 9, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania
- National Institute for Rehabilitation, Physical Medicine and Balneoclimatology, 030079 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Roxana Steliana Miclaus
- Department of Fundamental, Preventive, and Clinical Disciplines, Faculty of Medicine, Transilvania University of Brasov, 500036 Brasov, Romania
- Neurorehabilitation Department, Clinical Hospital of Psychiatry and Neurology, 500036 Brasov, Romania
| |
Collapse
|
|
8
|
Osiak-Wicha C, Kras K, Tomaszewska E, Muszyński S, Arciszewski MB. Examining the Potential Applicability of Orexigenic and Anorexigenic Peptides in Veterinary Medicine for the Management of Obesity in Companion Animals. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2024; 46:6725-6745. [PMID: 39057043 PMCID: PMC11275339 DOI: 10.3390/cimb46070401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2024] [Revised: 06/27/2024] [Accepted: 06/29/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
This review article comprehensively explores the role of orexigenic and anorexigenic peptides in the management of obesity in companion animals, with a focus on clinical applications. Obesity in domestic animals, particularly dogs and cats, is prevalent, with significant implications for their health and well-being. Factors contributing to obesity include overfeeding, poor-quality diet, lack of physical activity, and genetic predispositions. Despite the seriousness of this condition, it is often underestimated, with societal perceptions sometimes reinforcing unhealthy behaviors. Understanding the regulation of food intake and identifying factors affecting the function of food intake-related proteins are crucial in combating obesity. Dysregulations in these proteins, whether due to genetic mutations, enzymatic dysfunctions, or receptor abnormalities, can have profound health consequences. Molecular biology techniques play a pivotal role in elucidating these mechanisms, offering insights into potential therapeutic interventions. The review categorizes food intake-related proteins into anorexigenic peptides (inhibitors of food intake) and orexigenic peptides (enhancers of food intake). It thoroughly examines current research on regulating energy balance in companion animals, emphasizing the clinical application of various peptides, including ghrelin, phoenixin (PNX), asprosin, glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), leptin, and nesfatin-1, in veterinary obesity management. This comprehensive review aims to provide valuable insights into the complex interplay between peptides, energy balance regulation, and obesity in companion animals. It underscores the importance of targeted interventions and highlights the potential of peptide-based therapies in improving the health outcomes of obese pets.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cezary Osiak-Wicha
- Department of Animal Anatomy and Histology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Akademicka 12, 20-950 Lublin, Poland; (C.O.-W.); (K.K.)
| | - Katarzyna Kras
- Department of Animal Anatomy and Histology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Akademicka 12, 20-950 Lublin, Poland; (C.O.-W.); (K.K.)
| | - Ewa Tomaszewska
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Akademicka 12, 20-950 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Siemowit Muszyński
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Akademicka 13, 20-950 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Marcin B. Arciszewski
- Department of Animal Anatomy and Histology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Akademicka 12, 20-950 Lublin, Poland; (C.O.-W.); (K.K.)
| |
Collapse
|
|
9
|
Alyar G, Umudum FZ, Akbaş N. Changes in ghrelin, GLP-1, and PYY levels after diet and exercise in obese individuals. REVISTA DA ASSOCIACAO MEDICA BRASILEIRA (1992) 2024; 70:e20230263. [PMID: 38511748 PMCID: PMC10941879 DOI: 10.1590/1806-9282.20230263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Diet and exercise, which are the building blocks of obesity management, provide weight loss by creating a negative energy balance. However, the effect of energy deficit induced by long-term diet and exercise on appetite hormones remains unclear. The study was designed to determine the effect of a 12-week diet and exercise program applied to obese individuals on the levels of appetite hormones, namely, ghrelin, GLP-1, and PYY. METHODS A total of 62 obese individuals (BMI≥30) and 48 healthy controls (BMI 18.50-29.99) participated in the study. Appropriate diet (1000-1500 kcal/day) and exercise (at least 5000 steps/day) programs were applied to obese individuals according to age, gender, and BMI. The ghrelin, GLP-1, and PYY values of the participants were analyzed by the ELISA method and commercial kit by taking venous blood samples before and after 12 weeks of treatment. RESULTS While ghrelin levels of individuals decreased significantly after diet and exercise, PYY levels increased significantly. However, despite the treatment applied, the GLP-1 and PYY levels of the case group did not reach the levels of the control group. CONCLUSION Long-term diet and exercise intervention had a positive effect on appetite regulation hormones. It reduced ghrelin levels after treatment. Associated weight loss was facilitated. In the case group, increased satiety hormones after combined treatment supported the maintenance of body weight by increasing satiety.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gülşah Alyar
- Atatürk University, Vocational School of Health Services – Erzurum, Turkey
| | - Fatma Zuhal Umudum
- Atatürk University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Biochemistry – Erzurum, Turkey
| | - Nergis Akbaş
- Yalova University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Basic Medical Sciences – Erzurum, Turkey
| |
Collapse
|
|
10
|
Wang MN, Zhai MX, Wang YT, Dai QF, Liu L, Zhao LP, Xia QY, Li S, Li B. Mechanism of Acupuncture in Treating Obesity: Advances and Prospects. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CHINESE MEDICINE 2024; 52:1-33. [PMID: 38351701 DOI: 10.1142/s0192415x24500010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
Obesity is a common metabolic syndrome that causes a significant burden on individuals and society. Conventional therapies include lifestyle interventions, bariatric surgery, and pharmacological therapies, which are not effective and have a high risk of adverse events. Acupuncture is an effective alternative for obesity, it modulates the hypothalamus, sympathetic activity and parasympathetic activity, obesity-related hormones (leptin, ghrelin, insulin, and CCK), the brain-gut axis, inflammatory status, adipose tissue browning, muscle blood flow, hypoxia, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) to influence metabolism, eating behavior, motivation, cognition, and the reward system. However, hypothalamic regulation by acupuncture should be further demonstrated in human studies using novel techniques, such as functional MRI (fMRI), positron emission tomography (PET), electroencephalogram (EEG), and magnetoencephalography (MEG). Moreover, a longer follow-up phase of clinical trials is required to detect the long-term effects of acupuncture. Also, future studies should investigate the optimal acupuncture therapeutic option for obesity. This review aims to consolidate the recent improvements in the mechanism of acupuncture for obesity as well as discuss the future research prospects and potential of acupuncture for obesity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mi-Na Wang
- Department of Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Beijing Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Acupuncture Neuromodulation, Beijing 100010, P. R. China
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Life Science, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
| | - Miao-Xin Zhai
- Yinghai Hospital, Daxing District, Beijing 100163, P. R. China
| | - Yi-Tong Wang
- Department of Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Beijing Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Acupuncture Neuromodulation, Beijing 100010, P. R. China
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Life Science, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
| | - Qiu-Fu Dai
- Department of Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Beijing Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Acupuncture Neuromodulation, Beijing 100010, P. R. China
| | - Lu Liu
- Department of Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Beijing Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Acupuncture Neuromodulation, Beijing 100010, P. R. China
| | - Luo-Peng Zhao
- Department of Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Beijing Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Acupuncture Neuromodulation, Beijing 100010, P. R. China
| | - Qiu-Yu Xia
- Department of Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Beijing Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Acupuncture Neuromodulation, Beijing 100010, P. R. China
| | - Shen Li
- Department of Emergency, Beijing Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100010, P. R. China
| | - Bin Li
- Department of Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Beijing Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Acupuncture Neuromodulation, Beijing 100010, P. R. China
| |
Collapse
|
|
11
|
Higaki S, Inai R, Mochizuki S, Yoshihara A, Akimitsu K, Matsuo T. Anti-Obesity Effects of a Combination of Whole-Body Vibration Stimulus and Dietary D-Allulose on Rats Fed a High-Fat Diet. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo) 2024; 70:508-513. [PMID: 39756972 DOI: 10.3177/jnsv.70.508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2025]
Abstract
Whole-body vibration (WBV) has gained attention as a light-resistance exercise and can increase energy metabolism. The rare sugar D-allulose has anti-obesity effects that are mediated by the suppression of hepatic lipogenesis. In this study, we examined the anti-obesity effects of a combination of WBV and dietary D-allulose in rats fed a high-fat diet. Thirty-two male Wistar rats (3-wk-old) were randomly assigned to four groups: sedentary control (C), WBV (V), D-allulose (A), and WBV+D-allulose (VA). Rats in Groups A and VA were fed a 5% D-allulose diet, and rats in Groups V and VA were subjected to WBV using a vibrating platform during the 8-wk experimental period. Total abdominal adipose tissue was significantly lower in Groups V, A, and VA than that in Group C, whereas no differences were observed between Groups V, A, and VA. Dietary D-allulose significantly decreased the weights and percentages of carcass and total body fats, whereas the WBV stimulus significant reduced only the total body fat mass. We observed that both long-term WBV stimulation and dietary D-allulose intake inhibited body fat accumulation in rats fed a high-fat diet, which led to obesity; however, no synergistic effect of this combination could be confirmed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Reiko Inai
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Nara Women's University
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
|
12
|
Najafi R, Heidarianpour A, Shokri E, Shokri B. Ameliorative effects of aerobic training in girls with precocious puberty: role of leptin and ghrelin. Sci Rep 2023; 13:15732. [PMID: 37735188 PMCID: PMC10575917 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-42828-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023] Open
Abstract
This study was an attempt to examine the changes in serum levels of ghrelin and leptin after 12-weeks of aerobic training and gonadotropin releasing hormone agonist (GnRH) treatment in girls with central precocious puberty. Thirty girls (6-8 years old) with precocious puberty who had received Triptorelin were randomly divided in two groups (medication and medication + training). Fifteen age-matched healthy girls (without precocious puberty) were also included as the control group. The medication + training group submitted an aerobic training program for 3 days/week with 20-75 min per day and 45-75% of maximum heart rate for 12-weeks. Serum levels of leptin, ghrelin, cholesterol, triglycerides and body mass index (BMI) were determined at baseline and 48 h after the last training session. The results indicated that leptin significantly decreased (p = 0.001) and ghrelin significantly increased (p = 0.001) in the medication + training group but no significant difference was observed in the ghrelin (p = 1) and leptin (p = 0.78) in the medication group. Leptin to ghrelin ratio indicated a decrease in medicine + training group (p = 0.028). Ghrelin were negatively correlated with leptin and BMI. The data indicated that aerobic training increased ghrelin and reduced leptin and leptin to ghrelin ratio but GnRH agonist treatment had no effect on plasma leptin and ghrelin levels.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ramyar Najafi
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran
| | | | - Elnaz Shokri
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran
| | - Behnaz Shokri
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran
| |
Collapse
|
|
13
|
Stensel DJ. How can physical activity facilitate a sustainable future? Reducing obesity and chronic disease. Proc Nutr Soc 2023; 82:286-297. [PMID: 36892103 DOI: 10.1017/s0029665123002203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/04/2023]
Abstract
This review examines the ways in which physical activity can contribute to a sustainable future by addressing significant public health issues. The review begins by identifying obesity and ageing as two major challenges facing societies around the world due to the association of both with the risk of chronic disease. Recent developments in the understanding and treatment of obesity are examined followed by an appraisal of the role of exercise alone and in combination with other therapies in preventing and managing obesity. The review then addresses the interaction between exercise and appetite due to the central role appetite plays in the development of overweight and obesity. The final section of the review examines the potential of physical activity to combat age-related chronic disease risk including CVD, cancer and dementia. It is concluded that while bariatric surgery and pharmacotherapy are the most effective treatments for severe obesity, physical activity has a role to play facilitating and enhancing weight loss in combination with other methods. Where weight/fat reduction via exercise is less than expected this is likely due to metabolic adaptation induced by physiological changes facilitating increased energy intake and decreased energy expenditure. Physical activity has many health benefits independent of weight control including reducing the risk of developing CVD, cancer and dementia and enhancing cognitive function in older adults. Physical activity may also provide resilience for future generations by protecting against the more severe effects of global pandemics and reducing greenhouse gas emissions via active commuting.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David J Stensel
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, National Centre for Sport and Exercise Medicine, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
- National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR), Leicester Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospitals of Leicester, National Health Service (NHS) Trust and the University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Waseda University, Tokorozawa, Japan
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Ma Liu Shui, Hong Kong
| |
Collapse
|
|
14
|
Purcell SA, Melanson EL, Afghahi A, Borges VF, Sinelli I, Cornier MA. The effects of resistance exercise on appetite sensations, appetite related hormones and energy intake in hormone receptor-positive breast cancer survivors. Appetite 2023; 182:106426. [PMID: 36539160 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2022.106426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Appetite is a determinant of dietary intake and is impacted by sex hormones, exercise, and body composition among individuals without chronic conditions. Whether appetite is altered by exercise in the context of estrogen suppression and cancer survivorship is unknown. This randomized cross-over study compared appetite and ad libitum energy intake (EI) after acute resistance exercise (REx) versus sedentary (SED) conditions and in relation to body composition and resting metabolic rate (RMR) in breast cancer survivors (BCS). Physically inactive premenopausal females with previous stage I-III estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer completed a single bout of REx or SED 35 minutes after a standardized breakfast meal. Appetite visual analog scales and hormones (total ghrelin and peptide-YY [PYY]) were measured before and 30, 90, 120, 150, and 180 minutes post-meal and expressed as area under the curve (AUC). Participants were offered a buffet-type meal 180 minutes after breakfast to assess ad libitum EI. Body composition (dual X-ray absorptiometry) and RMR (indirect calorimetry) were measured during a separate visit. Sixteen BCS were included (age: 46 ± 2 y, BMI: 24.9 ± 1.0 kg/m2). There were no differences in appetite ratings or EI between conditions. There were no differences in appetite hormone AUC, but REx resulted in lower ghrelin 120 (-85 ± 39 pg/mL, p = 0.031) and 180 (-114 ± 43 pg/mL, p = 0.018) minutes post-breakfast and higher PYY 90 (21 ± 10 pg/mL, p = 0.028) and 120 (14 ± 7 pg/mL, p = 0.041) minutes post-breakfast. Fat-free mass and RMR negatively correlated with hunger and prospective food consumption AUC after SED, but not REx. In sum, a single REx bout temporarily reduces orexigenic and increases anorexic appetite hormones, but not acute subjective appetite sensations or EI.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A Purcell
- School of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology Metabolism and Diabetes, University of Colorado - Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA; Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada; Department of Biology, University of British Columbia - Okanagan, Kelowna, BC, V1V 1V7, Canada.
| | - Edward L Melanson
- School of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology Metabolism and Diabetes, University of Colorado - Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA; Rocky Mountain Regional VA Medical Center, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA; Department of Medicine, Division of Geriatric Medicine, University of Colorado - Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Anosheh Afghahi
- School of Medicine, Division of Medical Oncology, University of Colorado - Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA; Young Women's Breast Cancer Translational Program, University of Colorado Cancer Center, University of Colorado - Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Virginia F Borges
- School of Medicine, Division of Medical Oncology, University of Colorado - Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA; Young Women's Breast Cancer Translational Program, University of Colorado Cancer Center, University of Colorado - Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Isabella Sinelli
- School of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology Metabolism and Diabetes, University of Colorado - Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Marc-Andre Cornier
- School of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology Metabolism and Diabetes, University of Colorado - Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA; Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolic Diseases, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| |
Collapse
|
|
15
|
Almesbehi T, Harris L, McGarty A, Alqallaf S, Westrop S, Edwards CA, Dorling JL, Malkova D. Effects of exercise training programmes on fasting gastrointestinal appetite hormones in adults with overweight and obesity: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Appetite 2023; 182:106424. [PMID: 36565928 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2022.106424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2022] [Revised: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
A systematic review and meta-analysis was performed to determine the effect of exercise training on fasting gastrointestinal appetite hormones in adults living with overweight and obesity. For eligibility, only randomised controlled trials (duration ≥ four weeks) examining the effect of exercise training interventions were considered. This review was registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (CRD42020218976). The searches were performed on five databases: MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, and Scopus. The initial search identified 13204 records. Nine studies, which include sixteen exercise interventions, met the criteria for inclusion. Meta-analysis was calculated as the standardised mean difference (Cohen's d). Exercise training had no effect on fasting concentrations of total ghrelin (d: 1.06, 95% CI -0.38 to 2.50, P = 0.15), acylated ghrelin (d: 0.08, 95% CI: -0.31 to 0.47, P = 0.68) and peptide YY (PYY) (d = -0.16, 95% CI: -0.62 to 0.31, P = 0.51) compared to the control group. Analysis of body mass index (BMI) (d: -0.31, 95% CI: -0.50 to -0.12, P < 0.01) and body mass (d: -0.22, 95% CI: -0.42 to -0.03, P = 0.03) found a significant reduction after exercise compared to controls. Overall, exercise interventions did not modify fasting concentrations of total ghrelin, acylated ghrelin, and PYY in individuals with overweight or obesity, although they reduced body mass and BMI. Thus, any upregulation of appetite and energy intake in individuals with overweight and obesity participating in exercise programmes is unlikely to be related to fasting concentrations of gastrointestinal appetite hormones.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Taibah Almesbehi
- Human Nutrition, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, New Lister Building, Glasgow Royal Infirmary, Glasgow, UK
| | - Leanne Harris
- Human Nutrition, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, New Lister Building, Glasgow Royal Infirmary, Glasgow, UK
| | - Arlene McGarty
- School of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Sheikha Alqallaf
- Human Nutrition, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, New Lister Building, Glasgow Royal Infirmary, Glasgow, UK
| | - Sophie Westrop
- School of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Christine A Edwards
- Human Nutrition, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, New Lister Building, Glasgow Royal Infirmary, Glasgow, UK
| | - James L Dorling
- Human Nutrition, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, New Lister Building, Glasgow Royal Infirmary, Glasgow, UK
| | - Dalia Malkova
- Human Nutrition, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, New Lister Building, Glasgow Royal Infirmary, Glasgow, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
|
16
|
Calluna vulgaris Crude Extract Reverses Liver Steatosis and Insulin Resistance-Associated-Brain Lesion Induced by CCl4 Administration. SEPARATIONS 2023. [DOI: 10.3390/separations10020094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Fatty liver (FL) is one of the most prevalent diseases in the world, characterized by insulin resistance and hyperlipidemia, which consequently lead to neurodegenerative disorders through the induction of oxidative stress-inflammatory axis, which alters the neurotransmitters’ levels. Calluna vulgaris (CV), also known as heather, has anti-inflammatory and antidepressant properties, making it a promising candidate for treating steatosis and brain lesions. This study aimed to assess the prophylactic and therapeutic effect of CV extract on brain dysfunction associated with steatosis. FL was induced in rats by CCl4 oral administration (50 µL/Kg in olive oil three times/week) for six weeks. The protection group received 200 mg/kg CV extract orally for two weeks before and two weeks during FL induction, while the treatment group was orally administered CV extract after FL induction for one month. The biochemical parameters revealed that CCl4 administration induced hepatotoxicity as blood-liver function parameters (AST, ALT, ALP, protein, and LDH) were increased by 1.8, 1.4, 2, 2.4, and 1.2-fold, respectively. Moreover, insulin resistance was characterized by a two-fold increase in the glucose, insulin, and lipid profile when compared to control one, at p < 0.05. Steatosis liver demonstrated a two-fold increase in all following parameters— acetaldehyde (AC), prooxidant (TBARS), acetylcholine esterase (AChE), monoamine oxidase (MAO), hyaluronidase, and ATPase—when compared to control one, at p < 0.05. CCl4 administration led to brain lesions where the brain level of TBARS, insulin, cholesterol, AChE, and MAO was progressively increased by 2, 1.6, 2.2, 4, and 1.6-fold, respectively, that was associated with reduced glucose (8-fold) and GSH (2-fold) than that of control level, at p < 0.05. CV extract as a prophylactic and therapeutic agent increased GSH and decreased TBARS of both the liver and brain than that of induced group, at p < 0.05, normalized the activities of AChE and MAO, and increased insulin sensitivity where they successfully decreased the HOMA-IR, glucose, TG, and cholesterol compared to than that of induced group, at p < 0.05. This positive effect of CV extract contributed to the presence of polyphenolic compounds such as catechins (5.501 ± 0.056 µg/g extract), gallic (3.525 ± 0.143 µg/g) extract, and protocatechuic acid (2.719 ± 0.132 µg/g extract). Therefore, we concluded that FL induced brain dysfunction through the formation of ROS and elevation of insulin and lipid inside the brain tissue, which alter the amount of neurotransmitter and cellular energy production. Rich in polyphenolic compounds, CV extract functions as an antioxidant, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, inhibitor of neurotransmitter catabolizing enzymes, and a regulator for energy production. Therefore, it can be used as a preventative or treatment for NAFLD and brain damage.
Collapse
|
|
17
|
Valinejad A, Khodaei K. Does exercise during a ketogenic diet effectively alter appetite sensation, appetite-regulating hormones, and body composition? Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2022; 247:1898-1906. [PMID: 35920294 PMCID: PMC9742743 DOI: 10.1177/15353702221113862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Exercise and diet are two essential interventions in weight control. The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of two exercise training types during a ketogenic diet (KD) on appetite sensation, appetite-regulating hormones, and body composition in overweight or obese man. Thirty-six men, overweight or with obesity, voluntarily participated in this study. The participants were randomly assigned into three groups, including KD (n = 12), aerobic training during KD (AT-KD) (n = 12), and resistance training during KD (RT-KD) (n = 12) groups. The participants followed a low-carbohydrate diet for 6 weeks. Exercise training programs consisted of three sessions per week over 6 weeks. Appetite sensation was analyzed using a visual analogue scale (VAS) in fasting and postprandial states. The Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) method analyzed appetite-regulating hormones, including spexin, leptin, and acylated ghrelin, in a fasting state. Body composition was measured using bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA). Furthermore, the ketosis state was monitored by measuring urinary ketones weekly. The results indicated that in both AT-KD and RT-KD groups, spexin and acylated ghrelin increased while leptin decreased without any between-group differences. Hunger and prospective food consumption (PFC) declined while satiety and fullness increased in all groups. The AT-KD group experienced a significant decrease in hunger and PFC, while fullness increased compared with the KD group. Fat mass, weight, and body mass index (BMI) decreased in all groups. Lean body mass increased in the RT-KD group (+2.66 kg) compared with both AT-KD and KD groups (-1.71 and -1.33 kg, respectively). This study demonstrated that AT-KD and RT-KD effectively altered appetite-regulating hormones and suppressed appetite sensation. In addition, both interventions had a favorable effect on weight loss and body fat reduction, with a more pronounced effect of RT-KD on maintaining lean body mass in overweight or obese men.
Collapse
|
|
18
|
Chijiokwu EA, Nwangwa EK, Oyovwi MO, Naiho AO, Emojevwe V, Ohwin EP, Ehiwarior PA, Ojugbeli ET, Nwabuoku US, Oghenetega OB, Ogheneyoma OO. Intermittent fasting and exercise therapy abates STZ-induced diabetotoxicity in rats through modulation of adipocytokines hormone, oxidative glucose metabolic, and glycolytic pathway. Physiol Rep 2022; 10:e15279. [PMID: 36305681 PMCID: PMC9615571 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.15279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetes is a global, costly, and growing public health issue. Intermittent fasting (IF) and exercise therapy have been shown to improve insulin sensitivity (IS) in large studies, although the underlying processes are still unknown. The goal of this study, which included both nondiabetic and diabetic rats, was to look at the mechanisms of intermittent fasting and exercise in the management of diabetotoxicity. The effects of starvation and honey on the oral glucose tolerance test, insulin tolerance test, adipocytokines, oxidative glucose metabolic enzymes, glycolytic enzymes, food intake, and body weight in rats with streptozotocin‐induced diabetes were also investigated. In the nondiabetic phase, rats were administered an oral regimen of distilled water (0.5 ml/rat), honey (1 g/kg body weight), and interventions with IF, and starvation for 4 weeks while in the diabetic phase, after STZ or citrate buffer injections, interventions with IF, exercise, starvation, and honey treatment began for 4 weeks. At all OGTT and ITT points, there was a substantial rise in glucose in the STZ group. Adipocytokines hormone, oxidative glucose metabolic enzymes, glycolytic enzymes, and body weight were all affected by STZ when compared to starvation and honey, however, IF and exercise significantly reduced these alterations. In diabetic rats, intermittent fasting and exercise enhanced serum adipocytokines levels. These findings imply that adipokines modulate glycolytic/nonmitochondrial enzymes and glucose metabolic/mitochondrial dehydrogenase to mediate the antidiabetic effects of intermittent fasting and exercise. Intermittent fasting and exercise therapy abates STZ‐induced diabetotoxicity in rats through modulation of adipocytokines hormone, oxidative glucose metabolic, and glycolytic pathway.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ejime A. Chijiokwu
- Department of PhysiologyFaculty of Basic Medical ScienceCollege of Health SciencesDelta State UniversityAbrakaDelta StateNigeria
| | - Eze K. Nwangwa
- Department of PhysiologyFaculty of Basic Medical ScienceCollege of Health SciencesDelta State UniversityAbrakaDelta StateNigeria
| | - Mega O. Oyovwi
- 524172Department of Human PhysiologyAchievers UniversityOwoOndo StateNigeria
| | - Alexander O. Naiho
- Department of PhysiologyFaculty of Basic Medical ScienceCollege of Health SciencesDelta State UniversityAbrakaDelta StateNigeria
| | - Victor Emojevwe
- Department of PhysiologyUniversity of Medical SciencesOndoOndo StateNigeria
| | - Ejiro P. Ohwin
- Department of PhysiologyFaculty of Basic Medical ScienceCollege of Health SciencesDelta State UniversityAbrakaDelta StateNigeria
| | - Prosper A. Ehiwarior
- Department of PhysiologyFaculty of Basic Medical ScienceCollege of Health SciencesDelta State UniversityAbrakaDelta StateNigeria
| | - Evelyn T. Ojugbeli
- Department of Medical BiochemistryFaculty of Basic Medical ScienceCollege of Health SciencesDelta State UniversityAbrakaDelta StateNigeria
| | - Udoka S. Nwabuoku
- Department of PhysiologyFaculty of Basic Medical ScienceCollege of Health SciencesDelta State UniversityAbrakaDelta StateNigeria
| | - Onome B. Oghenetega
- Department of PhysiologyFaculty of Basic Medical ScienceBabcock UniversityIlisan‐RomoOgun StateNigeria
| | - Ofulue O. Ogheneyoma
- Department of PhysiologyFaculty of Basic Medical ScienceCollege of Health SciencesDelta State UniversityAbrakaDelta StateNigeria
| |
Collapse
|
|
19
|
Liu XM, Wang K, Zhu Z, Cao ZB. Compensatory effects of different exercise durations on non-exercise physical activity, appetite, and energy intake in normal weight and overweight adults. Front Physiol 2022; 13:932846. [PMID: 36060692 PMCID: PMC9437276 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.932846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives: To examine compensatory changes of different exercise durations on non-exercise physical activity (NEPA), appetite, and energy intake (EI) in normal and overweight adults, and to determine if different body mass index of individuals interact with these compensatory effects. Methods: Ten normal weight adults (nine females and one male; age: 24.0 ± 0.4 years; BMI: 20.7 ± 0.5 kg/m2) and ten overweight adults (six females and four males; age: 24.5 ± 0.9 years; BMI: 25.9 ± 0.4 kg/m2) participated in this study. The participants completed two exercise trials: short-duration continuous training (SDCT) and long-duration continuous training (LDCT), i.e., a 40 min short-duration and an 80 min long-duration continuous training in a randomized order. Total physical activity and NEPA were monitored using an accelerometer for seven consecutive days, which involved a two-day baseline observation period (C-pre-Ex), three-day exercise intervention period (Ex), and two-day follow-up period (C-post-Ex). Blood samples were collected for appetite-related hormone analysis. Appetite score was assessed using the visual analogue scale. Energy intake was evaluated by weighing the food and recording diaries. Results: The NEPA evaluation showed that it was higher for SDCT than for LDCT in the C-post-Ex period (F (1, 19) = 8.508, p = 0.009) in the total sample. Moreover, results also indicated that NEPA was lower for LDCT (F (2, 18) = 6.316, p = 0.020) and higher for SDCT (F (2, 18) = 3.889, p = 0.026) in the C-post-Ex period than in the C-pre-Ex and Ex periods in overweight group. Acyl-ghrelin revealed a main effect of time in the total sample and in normal weight and overweight groups; it was lower in the C-post-Ex period than in the C-pre-Ex and Ex periods (all p < 0.05). Total EI analysis revealed no significant changes in either the total sample or in the normal weight and overweight groups. Conclusion: These findings demonstrate that short duration exercise led to a compensatory increment in NEPA, whereas long duration exercise induced a compensatory decrease in NEPA. Moreover, there was a higher and delayed compensatory response in overweight adults than in normal weight adults. Nevertheless, energy intake was not changed across time, regardless of exercise duration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Mei Liu
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Research Base of Exercise and Metabolic Health, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
- School of Kinesiology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Ke Wang
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Research Base of Exercise and Metabolic Health, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
- School of Kinesiology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Zheng Zhu
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Research Base of Exercise and Metabolic Health, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
- School of Kinesiology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhen-Bo Cao
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Research Base of Exercise and Metabolic Health, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
- School of Kinesiology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Zhen-Bo Cao,
| |
Collapse
|
|
20
|
Kim HJ, Tak YJ, Lee SY, Seo JP. Effects of a 12-Week Diet versus Diet plus Aerobic and Resistance Exercise Program on Acylated and Desacylated Ghrelin, and Ghrelin O-Acyltransferase in Adolescent Girls with Obesity. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:1480. [PMID: 35162507 PMCID: PMC8835200 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19031480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2021] [Revised: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of a 12-week diet versus diet plus aerobic and resistance exercise programme on acylated ghrelin (AG), desacylated ghrelin (DAG), and ghrelin O-acyltransferase (GOAT) concentrations in girls with obesity. We randomised 30 adolescents with obesity to a 12-week aerobic and resistance exercise group (EG) or a control group (CG). At baseline and at 4, 8, and 12 weeks, we measured their body composition, lipid profile, glucose, AG, DAG, and GOAT concentrations. In the EG, the body fat percentage decreased by 2.37% and was significantly lower than that in the CG. The DAG concentrations significantly increased by 48.3% and 27.4% in the EG and CG, respectively. At 4, 8, and 12 weeks, DAG concentrations were significantly higher in the EG than in the CG. AG concentrations were higher at week 12 than at baseline in both groups. In both groups, the GOAT concentrations increased at weeks 8 and 12; however, no between-group differences were observed in the changes in GOAT concentrations. This study showed increased DAG concentrations and non-significant changes in AG and GOAT concentrations after a 12-week aerobic and resistance exercise programme in girls with obesity. These findings suggest that an aerobic and resistance exercise programme influences appetite-regulating hormones, mainly through changes in DAG concentrations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Jun Kim
- Department of Physical Education, Kyungnam University, Changwon 51767, Korea;
| | - Young Jin Tak
- Biomedical Research Institute, Pusan National University Hospital, Busan 49241, Korea;
- Department of Family Medicine, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan 50612, Korea
| | - Sang Yeoup Lee
- Family Medicine Clinic, Biomedical Research Institute, Pusan National University Yangsan Hospital, Yangsan 50612, Korea
- Department of Medical Education, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan 50612, Korea
| | | |
Collapse
|
|
21
|
Fearnbach N, Staiano AE, Johannsen NM, Hsia DS, Beyl RA, Carmichael OT, Martin CK. Predictors of Post-Exercise Energy Intake in Adolescents Ranging in Weight Status from Overweight to Severe Obesity. Nutrients 2022; 14:223. [PMID: 35011098 PMCID: PMC8747392 DOI: 10.3390/nu14010223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2021] [Revised: 01/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Exercise may sensitize individuals with overweight and obesity to appetitive signals (e.g., hunger and fullness cues), overriding trait eating behaviors that contribute to overeating and obesity, such as uncontrolled eating. The objective of the current study was to measure predictors of objective ad libitum energy intake at a laboratory-based, post-exercise test-meal in adolescents ranging in weight status from overweight to severe obesity. We hypothesized that appetitive states, rather than appetitive traits, would be the strongest predictors of energy intake at a post-exercise test-meal, after controlling for body size. At Baseline, 30 adolescents (ages 10-16 years, 50% female (F), 43% non-Hispanic white (NHW), 83% with obesity (OB)) completed state and trait appetite measures and an ad libitum dinner meal following intensive exercise. Nineteen of those participants (47% F, 32% NHW, 79% OB) completed identical assessments two years later (Year 2). Energy intake (kcal) at each time point was adjusted for fat-free mass index (i.e., body size). Adjusted energy intake was reliable from Baseline to Year 2 (ICC = 0.84). Multiple pre-meal appetite ratings were associated with test-meal energy intake. In stepwise linear regression models, pre-meal prospective food consumption was the strongest and only significant predictor of test-meal energy intake at both Baseline (R2 = 0.25, p = 0.005) and Year 2 (R2 = 0.41, p = 0.003). Baseline post-exercise energy intake was associated with weight change over two years (R2 = 0.24, p = 0.04), but not with change in fat mass (p = 0.11). Appetitive traits were not associated with weight or body composition change (p > 0.22). State appetite cues were the strongest predictors of post-exercise energy intake, independent of body size. Future studies should examine whether long-term exercise programs enhance responsiveness to homeostatic appetite signals in youth with overweight and obesity, with a goal to reduce excess energy intake and risk for weight gain over time.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Fearnbach
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70808, USA; (A.E.S.); (N.M.J.); (D.S.H.); (R.A.B.); (O.T.C.); (C.K.M.)
| | - Amanda E. Staiano
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70808, USA; (A.E.S.); (N.M.J.); (D.S.H.); (R.A.B.); (O.T.C.); (C.K.M.)
| | - Neil M. Johannsen
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70808, USA; (A.E.S.); (N.M.J.); (D.S.H.); (R.A.B.); (O.T.C.); (C.K.M.)
- School of Kinesiology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - Daniel S. Hsia
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70808, USA; (A.E.S.); (N.M.J.); (D.S.H.); (R.A.B.); (O.T.C.); (C.K.M.)
| | - Robbie A. Beyl
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70808, USA; (A.E.S.); (N.M.J.); (D.S.H.); (R.A.B.); (O.T.C.); (C.K.M.)
| | - Owen T. Carmichael
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70808, USA; (A.E.S.); (N.M.J.); (D.S.H.); (R.A.B.); (O.T.C.); (C.K.M.)
| | - Corby K. Martin
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70808, USA; (A.E.S.); (N.M.J.); (D.S.H.); (R.A.B.); (O.T.C.); (C.K.M.)
| |
Collapse
|
|
22
|
McCarthy O, Schmidt S, Christensen MB, Bain SC, Nørgaard K, Bracken R. The endocrine pancreas during exercise in people with and without type 1 diabetes: Beyond the beta-cell. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:981723. [PMID: 36147573 PMCID: PMC9485437 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.981723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although important for digestion and metabolism in repose, the healthy endocrine pancreas also plays a key role in facilitating energy transduction around physical exercise. During exercise, decrements in pancreatic β-cell mediated insulin release opposed by increments in α-cell glucagon secretion stand chief among the hierarchy of glucose-counterregulatory responses to decreasing plasma glucose levels. As a control hub for several major glucose regulatory hormones, the endogenous pancreas is therefore essential in ensuring glucose homeostasis. Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is pathophysiological condition characterised by a destruction of pancreatic β-cells resulting in pronounced aberrations in glucose control. Yet beyond the beta-cell perhaps less considered is the impact of T1D on all other pancreatic endocrine cell responses during exercise and whether they differ to those observed in healthy man. For physicians, understanding how the endocrine pancreas responds to exercise in people with and without T1D may serve as a useful model from which to identify whether there are clinically relevant adaptations that need consideration for glycaemic management. From a physiological perspective, delineating differences or indeed similarities in such responses may help inform appropriate exercise test interpretation and subsequent program prescription. With more complex advances in automated insulin delivery (AID) systems and emerging data on exercise algorithms, a timely update is warranted in our understanding of the endogenous endocrine pancreatic responses to physical exercise in people with and without T1D. By placing our focus here, we may be able to offer a nexus of better understanding between the clinical and engineering importance of AIDs requirements during physical exercise.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Olivia McCarthy
- Applied Sport, Technology, Exercise and Medicine Research Centre, Swansea University, Swansea, United Kingdom
- Steno Diabetes Center Copenhagen, Copenhagen University Hospital, Herlev, Denmark
- *Correspondence: Olivia McCarthy,
| | - Signe Schmidt
- Steno Diabetes Center Copenhagen, Copenhagen University Hospital, Herlev, Denmark
| | | | | | - Kirsten Nørgaard
- Steno Diabetes Center Copenhagen, Copenhagen University Hospital, Herlev, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Richard Bracken
- Applied Sport, Technology, Exercise and Medicine Research Centre, Swansea University, Swansea, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
|
23
|
Sitar-Tǎut AV, Cozma A, Fodor A, Coste SC, Orasan OH, Negrean V, Pop D, Sitar-Tǎut DA. New Insights on the Relationship between Leptin, Ghrelin, and Leptin/Ghrelin Ratio Enforced by Body Mass Index in Obesity and Diabetes. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9111657. [PMID: 34829886 PMCID: PMC8615809 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9111657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Revised: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Currently, adipose tissue is considered an endocrine organ, however, there are still many questions regarding the roles of adipokines—leptin and ghrelin being two adipokines. The purpose of the study was to assess the relationship between the adipokines and their ratio with obesity and diabetes. Methods: Sixty patients (mean age 61.88 ± 10.08) were evaluated. Cardiovascular risk factors, leptin, ghrelin, and insulin resistance score values were assessed. The patients were classified according to their body mass index (BMI) as normal weight, overweight, and obese. Results: 20% normal weight, 51.7% overweight, 28.3% obese, and 23.3% diabetic. Obese patients had higher leptin values (in obese 34,360 pg/mL vs. overweight 18,000 pg/mL vs. normal weight 14,350 pg/mL, p = 0.0049) and leptin/ghrelin ratio (1055 ± 641 vs. 771.36 ± 921 vs. 370.7 ± 257, p = 0.0228). Stratifying the analyses according to the presence of obesity and patients’ gender, differences were found for leptin (p = 0.0020 in women, p = 0.0055 in men) and leptin/ghrelin ratio (p = 0.048 in women, p = 0.004 in men). Mean leptin/BMI and leptin/ghrelin/BMI ratios were significantly higher, and the ghrelin/BMI ratio was significantly lower in obese and diabetic patients. In conclusion, obesity and diabetes are associated with changes not only in the total amount but also in the level of adipokines/kg/m2. Changes appear even in overweight subjects, offering a basis for early intervention in diabetic and obese patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adela-Viviana Sitar-Tǎut
- Internal Medicine Department, 4th Medical Clinic, Faculty of Medicine, “Iuliu Hațieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (A.C.); (S.-C.C.); (O.H.O.); (V.N.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Angela Cozma
- Internal Medicine Department, 4th Medical Clinic, Faculty of Medicine, “Iuliu Hațieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (A.C.); (S.-C.C.); (O.H.O.); (V.N.)
| | - Adriana Fodor
- Clinical Center of Diabetes, Nutrition, Metabolic Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, “Iuliu Hațieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
| | - Sorina-Cezara Coste
- Internal Medicine Department, 4th Medical Clinic, Faculty of Medicine, “Iuliu Hațieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (A.C.); (S.-C.C.); (O.H.O.); (V.N.)
| | - Olga Hilda Orasan
- Internal Medicine Department, 4th Medical Clinic, Faculty of Medicine, “Iuliu Hațieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (A.C.); (S.-C.C.); (O.H.O.); (V.N.)
| | - Vasile Negrean
- Internal Medicine Department, 4th Medical Clinic, Faculty of Medicine, “Iuliu Hațieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (A.C.); (S.-C.C.); (O.H.O.); (V.N.)
| | - Dana Pop
- Department of Cardiology, Clinical Rehabilitation Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, “Iuliu Hațieganu” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
| | - Dan-Andrei Sitar-Tǎut
- Business Information Systems Department, Faculty of Economics and Business Administration 58-60 Theodor Mihaly Street, “Babeş-Bolyai” University, 400591 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
| |
Collapse
|
|
24
|
What Is the Impact of Energy Expenditure on Energy Intake? Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13103508. [PMID: 34684509 PMCID: PMC8539813 DOI: 10.3390/nu13103508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Coupling energy intake (EI) to increases in energy expenditure (EE) may be adaptively, compensatorily, or maladaptively leading to weight gain. This narrative review examines if functioning of the homeostatic responses depends on the type of physiological perturbations in EE (e.g., due to exercise, sleep, temperature, or growth), or if it is influenced by protein intake, or the extent, duration, timing, and frequency of EE. As different measures to increase EE could convey discrepant neuronal or humoral signals that help to control food intake, the coupling of EI to EE could be tight or loose, which implies that some ways to increase EE may have advantages for body weight regulation. Exercise, physical activity, heat exposure, and a high protein intake favor weight loss, whereas an increase in EE due to cold exposure or sleep loss likely contributes to an overcompensation of EI, especially in vulnerable thrifty phenotypes, as well as under obesogenic environmental conditions, such as energy dense high fat—high carbohydrate diets. Irrespective of the type of EE, transient elevations in the metabolic rate seem to be general risk factors for weight gain, because a subsequent decrease in energy requirement is not compensated by an adequate adaptation of appetite and EI.
Collapse
|