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Mohammad R, Bansod DW. Hypertension in India: a gender-based study of prevalence and associated risk factors. BMC Public Health 2024; 24:2681. [PMID: 39354462 PMCID: PMC11443669 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-024-20097-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 09/16/2024] [Indexed: 10/03/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hypertension, a major non-communicable disease, is responsible for a significant number of global deaths, including approximately 17.9 million yearly. The Global Burden of Disease 2019 (GBD 2019) estimates that 19% of global deaths are attributed to elevated blood pressure. India, with a population of over 1.4 billion, is facing a serious challenge in combating this silent killer. This study aims to analyze the gender-based prevalence of hypertension in India and explore its associated risk factors using data from the fifth National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5). METHODS NFHS-5 collected data from 636,699 households across all states and union territories. The study includes standardized blood pressure measurements for 17,08,241 individuals aged 15 and above. The data were analyzed using Stata, employing descriptive statistics for the assessment of the prevalence and binary logistic regression to identify predictors of hypertension. RESULTS The study found the overall prevalence of hypertension in India to be 22.6%, with men (24.1%) having a higher prevalence than women (21.2%). Prevalence increased with age, reaching 48.4% in individuals aged 60 and above. Urban residents had a slightly higher prevalence (25%) than rural residents (21.4%), indicating the rapid spread of hypertension across all populations. Regional variations were observed, with the highest prevalence in Sikkim (37.9%) and the lowest in Rajasthan (16.5%). Increasing age, urban residence, belonging to certain religions (Muslim and other than Hindu or Muslim), and being classified as Scheduled Tribes (ST) were associated with a higher likelihood of hypertension. Conversely, belonging to Scheduled Castes (SC) or Other Backward Classes (OBC), being currently unmarried, and having higher education were associated with a lower likelihood of hypertension. Wealth index analysis revealed that those in the richest quintile were more likely to have hypertension. Behavioural risk factors, such as alcohol consumption, overweight, obesity, increased waist circumference, and high blood glucose levels, are positively associated with hypertension. CONCLUSION Hypertension is a significant health burden in India, affecting both men and women. Age is the strongest non-modifiable predictor for both men and women. However, ageing women have higher odds of hypertension than ageing men, and this distinction becomes much more evident in their older ages. Obese women, based on BMI, have higher odds of hypertension than men. However, hypertension prevalence is slightly higher among men who are overweight or obese compared to women. BMI, waist circumference, random glucose level, alcohol use, and education level emerged as major predictors. Health education and awareness campaigns are critical to control the growing burden of hypertension in India. Policymakers must focus on preventive measures, targeting lifestyle changes and improved healthcare access for both men and women. By addressing these risk factors, India can make significant progress in controlling hypertension and reducing its impact on public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raza Mohammad
- International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai, 400088, India.
| | - Dhananjay W Bansod
- Department of Public Health and Mortality Studies, International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai, 400088, India
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Muhammad T, Paul R, Rashmi R, Srivastava S. Examining sex disparity in the association of waist circumference, waist-hip ratio and BMI with hypertension among older adults in India. Sci Rep 2022; 12:13117. [PMID: 35907951 PMCID: PMC9338983 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-17518-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypertension is a public health issue touted as a “silent killer” worldwide. The present study aimed to explore the sex differential in the association of anthropometric measures including body mass index, waist circumference, and waist-hip ratio with hypertension among older adults in India. The study used data from the Longitudinal Aging Study in India (LASI) conducted during 2017–18. The sample contains 15,098 males and 16,366 females aged 60 years and above. Descriptive statistics (percentages) along with bivariate analysis were presented. Multivariable binary logistic regression analyses were used to examine the associations between the outcome variable (hypertension) and putative risk or protective factors. About 33.9% of males and 38.2% of females aged 60 years and above suffered from hypertension. After adjusting for the socioeconomic, demographic and health-behavioral factors, the odds of hypertension were 1.37 times (CI: 1.27–1.47), significantly higher among older adults who were obese or overweight than those with no overweight/obese condition. Older adults with high-risk waist circumference and waist-hip ratio had 1.16 times (CI: 1.08–1.25) and 1.42 times (CI: 1.32–1.51) higher odds of suffering from hypertension, respectively compared to their counterparts with no high-risk waist circumference or waist-hip ratio. The interaction effects showed that older females with overweight/obesity [OR: 0.84; CI: 0.61–0.74], high-risk waist circumference [OR: 0.89; CI: 0.78–0.99], and high-risk waist-hip ratio [OR: 0.90; CI: 0.83–0.97] had a lower chance of suffering from hypertension than their male counterparts with the similar anthropometric status. The findings suggested a larger magnitude of the association between obesity, high-risk waist circumference, high-risk waist-hip ratio and prevalent hypertension among older males than females. The study also highlights the importance of measuring obesity and central adiposity in older individuals and using such measures as screening tools for timely identification of hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Muhammad
- International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai, 400088, India
| | - Ronak Paul
- International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai, 400088, India
| | - Rashmi Rashmi
- International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai, 400088, India
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Vasantha K, Hemavathy V. Effectiveness of health education on knowledge of hypertension among hypertensive patient – a pilot analysis. CARDIOMETRY 2022. [DOI: 10.18137/cardiometry.2022.22.497503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Hyper tension is often known as high blood pressure. It is a serious medical condition that raises the risk of heart attack, stroke, renal failure, and blindness. When the systolic blood pressure readings are greater than or equal to 140 millimeters of mercury and the diastolic blood pressure readings are greater than or equal to 90 millimeters of mercury on two different days, hypertension is diagnosed. It is one of the leading causes of death in the world. Of the assessed 1130000000 people who have hypertension, fewer than 1 in 5 have it under control. The main contributors to the increase in hypertension are unhealthy diets, physical inactivity.In 2025; anpredictable 1.56 billion adults will be living with hypertension.).The aim of the study is to assess the Awareness regarding Hypertension among hypertensive patient.In this study, the pre-experimental research design was accepted. The samples of the present study were patients with pre hypertension and stage –I hypertension. Conclusion: This pilot study concludes by proving the efficiency of health education on Knowledge of hypertension among rural adult hypertensive patient.
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Udayar SE, Thatuku ST, Jevergiyal DP, Meundi AM. Prevalence and predictors of prehypertension and hypertension in adult population of rural Southern India-An epidemiological study. J Family Med Prim Care 2021; 10:2558-2565. [PMID: 34568136 PMCID: PMC8415680 DOI: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_2415_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 02/21/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Hypertension is considered as one of the major health problem worldwide and the most important risk factor for non-communicable diseases. Aims: To estimate the prevalence and the risk factors of prehypertension and hypertension. Methods and Material: A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted among adult population of rural area of Chittoor District. WHO STEPS was applied for data collection from 1,742 study participants aged 18 years and above. Chi-square test, Fisher exact, and ANOVA test applied to find out the intragroup and intergroup variable association with raised blood pressure. Results: The overall prevalence of hypertension and prehypertension in our study was 21.5% [95% CI: (19.6–23.5)] and 42.8% [95% CI: (39.5–46.3)], respectively. Males had higher prevalence when compared to females. The mean systolic and diastolic blood pressure was 118.7 ± 17.6 mmHg and 77.1 ± 9.7 mmHg, respectively. The odds of being hypertensive was higher among older age group (OR: 3.83), male study participants (OR: 1.83), either widowed or separated (OR: 2.03), unemployed (OR: 1.51), and those who belonged to upper socioeconomic status (OR: 2.01). Those who were overweight (OR: 3.15), obese (OR: 2.55) and having central obesity (OR: 1.74), and also tobacco smokers (OR: 1.53) were having higher odds of hypertension. Significant association was found between hypertension and age, gender, marital status, body mass index, abdominal obesity, tobacco smoking, and physical inactivity. Conclusion: The prevalence of prehypertension and hypertension in this study was found to be high in rural area of Andhra Pradesh. There is a need to develop a community-based program, which would aim at minimizing the risk factors of hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharvanan Eshwar Udayar
- Department of Community Medicine, Kogagu Institute of Medical Sciences, Government of Karnataka, Nellore, India
| | - Srinivas T Thatuku
- Department of Community Medicine, ACSR Governement Medical College, Nellore, India
| | | | - Anand M Meundi
- Department of Community Medicine, Pariyaram Medical College, Pariyaram, Kannur District, Kerala, India
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Dakshinamurthy S, Saxena V, Kumari R, Mirza AA, Dhar M. Prevalence of hypertension and associated cardiometabolic risk factors in urban Rishikesh, Uttarakhand. J Family Med Prim Care 2020; 9:2931-2939. [PMID: 32984151 PMCID: PMC7491824 DOI: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_54_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Revised: 03/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hypertension is one of the leading causes of premature death worldwide and is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease and all-of them cause mortality. Out of the estimated 1.13 billion people who have hypertension, less than 1 in 5 people have it under control. AIM AND OBJECTIVES To study the prevalence of hypertension and associated risk factors in the urban population of Rishikesh and the association of hypertension with other determinants. METHODOLOGY A community based cross-sectional study was conducted in an urban area of Rishikesh. The World Health Organization (WHO) steps instrument and protocol was used for the assessment of risk factors and measurements. i.e. anthropometry and blood pressure. Sample size was calculated to be 478. Data was entered and analyzed using SPSS Version 20.0. Appropriate statistical tests were done. A P value of < 0.05 was considered significant. RESULTS The prevalence of hypertension in urban Rishikesh is 32.4%. The prevalence in male and female is 34.5% and 31.3% respectively. Among hypertensives 45.8% had hypertriglyceridemia, 32.2% had low high-density lipoproteins (HDL), 52.25% had fasting blood glucose more than 100, and 55.4% were obese individuals. Multivariate logistic regression analysis identified that age, waist circumference, body mass index, triglycerides level, and physical activity were independently associated with hypertension. CONCLUSIONS As the prevalence of hypertension and cardiometabolic risk factors were higher, necessary health interventions were required to reduce the morbidity/mortality of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vartika Saxena
- Department of Community and Family Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Rishikesh, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Ranjeeta Kumari
- Department of Community and Family Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Rishikesh, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Anissa Atif Mirza
- Department of Biochemistry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Rishikesh, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Minakshi Dhar
- Department of Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Rishikesh, Uttarakhand, India
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Babu GR, Murthy GVS, Ana Y, Patel P, Deepa R, Benjamin-Neelon SE, Kinra S, Reddy KS. Association of obesity with hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus in India: A meta-analysis of observational studies. World J Diabetes 2018; 9:40-52. [PMID: 29359028 PMCID: PMC5763039 DOI: 10.4239/wjd.v9.i1.40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2017] [Revised: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM To perform a meta-analysis of the association of obesity with hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in India among adults.
METHODS To conduct meta-analysis, we performed comprehensive, electronic literature search in the PubMed, CINAHL Plus, and Google Scholar. We restricted the analysis to studies with documentation of some measure of obesity namely; body mass index, waist-hip ratio, waist circumference and diagnosis of hypertension or diagnosis of T2DM. By obtaining summary estimates of all included studies, the meta-analysis was performed using both RevMan version 5 and “metan” command STATA version 11. Heterogeneity was measured by I2 statistic. Funnel plot analysis has been done to assess the study publication bias.
RESULTS Of the 956 studies screened, 18 met the eligibility criteria. The pooled odds ratio between obesity and hypertension was 3.82 (95%CI: 3.39 to 4.25). The heterogeneity around this estimate (I2 statistic) was 0%, indicating low variability. The pooled odds ratio from the included studies showed a statistically significant association between obesity and T2DM (OR = 1.14, 95%CI: 1.04 to 1.24) with a high degree of variability.
CONCLUSION Despite methodological differences, obesity showed significant, potentially plausible association with hypertension and T2DM in studies conducted in India. Being a modifiable risk factor, our study informs setting policy priority and intervention efforts to prevent debilitating complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giridhara R Babu
- Public Health Foundation of India, IIPH-H, Bangalore Campus, SIHFW Premises, Beside Leprosy Hospital, Bangalore 560023, India
| | - G V S Murthy
- Indian Institute of Public Health-Hyderabad, Plot # 1, A.N.V.Arcade, Amar Co-op Society, Kavuri Hills, Madhapur, Hyderabad 500033, India
- London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London WC1E 7HT, United Kingdom
| | - Yamuna Ana
- Public Health Foundation of India, IIPH-H, Bangalore Campus, SIHFW Premises, Beside Leprosy Hospital, Bangalore 560023, India
| | - Prital Patel
- Indian School of Business, Hyderabad 500111, India
| | - R Deepa
- Public Health Foundation of India, IIPH-H, Bangalore Campus, SIHFW Premises, Beside Leprosy Hospital, Bangalore 560023, India
| | | | - Sanjay Kinra
- Department of Non-Communicable Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine and University College London Hospital, London WC1E 7HT, United Kingdom
| | - K Srinath Reddy
- Public Health Foundation of India, ISID Campus, 4 Institutional Area Vasant Kunj, New Delhi 110070, India
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Singh S, Shankar R, Singh GP. Prevalence and Associated Risk Factors of Hypertension: A Cross-Sectional Study in Urban Varanasi. Int J Hypertens 2017; 2017:5491838. [PMID: 29348933 PMCID: PMC5733954 DOI: 10.1155/2017/5491838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypertension is a major public health problem and important area of research due to its high prevalence and being major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases and other complications. Objectives. (1) To assess the prevalence of hypertension and its associated factors and (2) to estimate awareness, treatment, and adequacy of control of hypertension among study subjects. Methods and Materials. A community based cross-sectional study with multistage sampling design was conducted among urban population of Varanasi. A modified WHO STEPS interview schedule on 640 study subjects aged 25-64 years was used. Results. The prevalence of hypertension was 32.9% (male: 40.9%, female: 26.0%). Mean systolic and diastolic BP were 124.25 ± 15.05 mmHg and 83.45 ± 9.49 mmHg, respectively. Higher odds of being hypertensive were found in male subjects, eldest age group, married subjects, subjects of upper socioeconomic status, illiterate subjects, and retired subjects. Tobacco and alcohol consumption, overweight, obesity, and abdominal obesity were also associated with hypertension. Out of the total hypertensive 211 subjects, only 81 (38.4%) were aware about their hypertension status; out of those, 57 (70.4%) were seeking treatment and 20 (35.08%) had their blood pressure adequately controlled. Conclusion. Around one-third of the subjects were hypertensive and half of the study subjects were prehypertensive in this area. The awareness, treatment, and control of high blood pressure were also very low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shikha Singh
- Department of Community Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
| | - Ravi Shankar
- Department of Community Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
| | - Gyan Prakash Singh
- Division of Biostatistics, Department of Community Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
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Prevalence of Hypertension and Determination of Its Risk Factors in Rural Delhi. Int J Hypertens 2016; 2016:7962595. [PMID: 27127646 PMCID: PMC4834167 DOI: 10.1155/2016/7962595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2015] [Revised: 03/16/2016] [Accepted: 03/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction. Hypertension is an important public health challenge in both economically developing and developed countries. It is one of the risk factors for cardiovascular mortality. Data is available on hypertension in urban population but few studies are reported in rural areas. Materials and Methods. It was a community based cross-sectional study conducted in two rural areas in Delhi among 1005 subjects selected using systematic random sampling method. WHO STEPS approach was used to collect data. Blood pressure, body mass index, and blood sugar were measured. Data analysis was done using SPSS version 16. Odds of hypertension among subjects with risk factors were calculated. p value less than 0.05 was considered significant. Results. The prevalence of hypertension was 14.1% among study subjects. Hypertension was significantly higher in individuals more than 35 years than those less than 35 years. Hypertension was significantly higher in those who take alcohol and in subjects with raised total cholesterol level but in multivariate analysis only age, education, and cholesterol levels were independently associated with hypertension. Conclusion. There is significant burden of hypertension in rural areas in Delhi. Age, education, and cholesterol levels were independent risk factors of hypertension.
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Sen S, Chakraborty R, De B, Devanna N. Trends in diabetes epidemiology in Indian population in spite of regional disparities: a systemic review. Int J Diabetes Dev Ctries 2015; 35:264-279. [DOI: 10.1007/s13410-014-0269-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
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Daniel OJ, Adejumo OA, Adejumo EN, Owolabi RS, Braimoh RW. Prevalence of hypertension among urban slum dwellers in Lagos, Nigeria. J Urban Health 2013; 90:1016-25. [PMID: 23440487 PMCID: PMC3853173 DOI: 10.1007/s11524-013-9795-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Urban slum dwellers are not only prone to develop communicable diseases but also to non-communicable disease (NCDs). The extent and magnitude of NCDs among slum dwellers is largely unknown in Nigeria. A total of 964 adults aged 20-81 years (male 330 and female 634) residing in the urban slum of Ajegunle in Lagos State, Nigeria were studied to determine the prevalence of hypertension and associated factors. The overall prevalence of hypertension was 38.2 %. Of the 368 respondents identified as having hypertension, only 50 (5.2 %) respondents were previously aware of their diagnosis. Of the 50 known hypertensive patients, 48(96 %) had poor control of their high blood pressure. The socio-demographic factors significantly associated with hypertension status were age, sex, education, religion, BMI, and marital status. The study concludes a high prevalence of hypertension among urban slums dwellers in Lagos. The need for government to develop policies for the control of hypertension, improve access to early diagnosis and provide an enabling socioeconomic environment while promoting healthy living.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olusoji James Daniel
- Department of Community Medicine and Primary Care, Olabisi Onabanjo University Teaching Hospital, Sagamu, Ogun State, Nigeria,
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