Omission of breakfast and risk of gastric cancer in Mexico

Table 1 General characteristics of the subjects n (%)

	Total (n = 211)	With GC (n = 49)	Without GC (n = 162)
Sex
Male	152 (72.0)	23 (46.9)	129 (79.6)
Female	59 (28.0)	26 (53.1)	3 (20.4)
Age (yr)1	40.2 ± 16.1	62.1 ± 10.7	33.5 ± 10.7
Minimum	18	39	18
Maximum	83	83	64
Histopathological classification
Diffuse adenocarcinoma	_	26 (53.1)	_
Intestinal adenocarcinoma	_	21 (42.8)	_
Lymphoma	_	2 (4.1)	_
Marital status
Single	56 (26.5)	6 (12.2)	50 (30.9)
Married	90 (42.7)	27 (55.1)	63 (38.9)
Living with a partner	46 (21.8)	5 (10.2)	41 (25.9)
Divorced	8 (3.8)	1 (2.0)	7 (4.3)
Widowed	11 (5.2)	10 (20.4)	1 (0.6)
Education level
No formal education	26 (12.3)	14 (28.6)	12 (7.4)
Primary	66 (31.3)	26 (53.1)	40 (24.7)
Secondary	49 (23.2)	4 (8.2)	45 (27.8)
Bachelors	23 (10.9)	0 (0.0)	23 (14.2)
Professional technical	1 (0.5)	0 (0.0)	1 (0.6)
Graduate	45 (21.3)	5 (10.2)	40 (24.7)
Postgraduate	1 (0.5)	0 (0.0)	1 (0.6)
Place of work2
Without employment	51 (24.2)	27 (55.1)	24 (14.8)
Rural	57 (27.0)	12 (24.5)	45 (27.8)
Urban	103 (48.8)	10 (20.4)	93 (57.4)
Socioeconomic status3
Low	134 (63.5)	42 (85.7)	92 (56.8)
Medium	67 (31.8)	4 (8.2)	63 (38.9)
High	10 (4.7)	3 (6.1)	7 (4.3)

¹mean ± SD;

²Rural: working outside the town; urban: working in the town;

³Monthly household income: low ≤ $376 USD; medium $377 to $979 USD; high ≥ $980 USD. GC: Gastric cancer.

Table 2 Association between sociodemographic characteristics, habits, diet and pathological history of gastric cancer n (%)

	With GC (49)1	Without GC (162)1	OR (95% CI)	P value
Education level
Higher than primary	9 (18.4)	110 (67.9)	1
Primary or below	40 (81.6)	52 (32.1)	9.40 (4.25-20.81)	< 0.0001
Socioeconomic level
Medium-high	7 (14.3)	70 (43.2)	1
Low	42 (85.7)	92 (56.8)	4.57 (1.93-10.77)	0.0002
Use of tobacco2
Non-smoker	27 (55.1)	87 (53.7)	1
Smoker-ex-smoker	22 (44.9)	75 (46.3)	0.95 (0.50-1.80)	0.99
Pattern of tobacco consumption3
Occasional	15 (30.6)	54 (33.3)	1
Habitual	7 (14.3)	22 (13.6)	1.15 (0.41-3.19)	0.49
Consumption of alcohol4
Non-consumer	20 (40.8)	57 (35.2)	1
Consumer-ex-consumer	29 (59.2)	105 (64.8)	0.79 (0.41-1.51)	0.47
Pattern of alcohol consumption5
Occasional	21 (72.4)	101 (96.2)	1
Habitual	8 (27.6)	4 (3.8)	9.62 (2.65-34.90)	0.0001
Use of mouthwash
No	46 (93.9)	127 (78.4)	1
Yes	3 (6.1)	35 (21.6)	0.24 (0.07-0.81)	0.014
Use of dental prosthesis
No	31 (63.3)	158 (97.5)	1
Yes	18 (36.7)	4 (2.5)	22.94 (7.26-72.42)	< 0.0001
Refrigeration of food
Yes	24 (49.0)	137 (84.6)	1
No	25 (51.0)	25 (15.4)	5.71 (2.82-11.54)	< 0.0001
Omission of breakfast
No	14 (28.6)	137 (84.6)	1
Yes	35 (71.4)	25 (15.4)	13.70 (6.46-29.07)	< 0.0001
Consumption of very hot food or drinks
No	43 (87.8)	159 (98.1)	1
Yes	6 (12.2)	3 (1.9)	7.40 (1.78-30.79)	0.006
Addition of salt to prepared food6
No	32 (65.3)	138 (85.2)	1
Yes	17 (34.7)	24 (14.8)	3.05 (1.47-6.34)	0.002
Consumption of fruit7
Rare	29 (59.2)	64 (39.5)	1
Frequent	20 (40.8)	98 (60.5)	0.45 (0.23-0.86)	0.015
Consumption of vegetables7
Rare	31 (63.3)	69 (42.6)	1
Frequent	18 (36.7)	93 (57.4)	0.43 (0.22-0.88)	0.011
Consumption of salt-preserved foods
No	29 (59.2)	129 (79.6)	1
Yes	20 (40.8)	33 (20.4)	2.70 (1.36-5.35)	0.004
Consumption of capsaicin
No	11 (22.4)	26 (16.0)	1
Yes	38 (77.6)	136 (84.0)	0.66 (0.30-1.46)	0.30
Family history of gastric cancer
No	44 (89.8)	159 (98.1)	1
Yes	5 (10.2)	3 (1.9)	6.02 (1.39-26.19)	0.018

¹Total may vary due to lost values;

²Smoker: Consumes cigarettes currently or consumed prior to diagnosis of gastric cancer (GC); Ex-smoker: Has not consumed cigarettes for at least one year before the interview or on diagnosis of GC; non-smoker: does not consume cigarettes;

³Occasional: Only smokes on special occasions which occur infrequently; habitual: Smokes one or more times per week;

⁴Consumer: Consumes alcohol at the time of the interview or prior to diagnosis with GC; Ex-consumer: Has not consumed alcohol for at least one year before the interview or on diagnosis of GC; Non-consumer: Does not consume alcohol;

⁵Occasional: Only consumes alcohol on special occasions which occur infrequently; Habitual: Consumes alcohol one or more times per week;

⁶Addition of salt to prepared foods, during the course of meals;

⁷Rare: Consumption of less than seven portions per week; Frequent: Consumption of seven or more portions per week.

Table 3 Association of the variables included in the multivariate analysis

	Non-adjusted model			Adjusted model
	OR	95% CI	P value	OR	95% CI	P value
Use of dental prosthesis	9.44	1.26-70.78	0.029	9.68	1.51-61.97	0.017
Use of mouthwash	0.10	0.01-1.01	0.051	-	-	-
Omission of breakfast	6.65	1.94-22.79	0.003	5.21	1.70-16.00	0.004
Non-refrigeration of foods	4.18	0.99-17.60	0.051	6.58	1.78-24.32	0.005
Consumption of very hot food and drinks	11.81	0.86-162.85	0.065	-	-	-
Addition of salt to prepared food	2.29	0.56-9.49	0.25	-	-	-
Consumption of salt-preserved foods	4.75	1.14-19.73	0.032	-	-	-

Multivariate analysis conducted using logistic regression adjusted, by the forward conditional method, for the following variables: use of mouthwash, consumption of very hot food and drinks, addition of salt to prepared food and consumption of salt-preserved foods.