Obesity is a chronic and complex disease associated with increased morbidity, mortality, and financial burden. It is expected that by 2030 one of two people in the United States will have obesity. The backbone for obesity management continues to be lifestyle interventions, consisting of calorie deficit diets and increased physical activity levels, however, these interventions are often insufficient to achieve sufficient and maintained weight loss. As a result, multiple patients require additional interventions such as antiobesity medications or bariatric interventions in order to achieve clinically significant weight loss and improvement or resolution of obesity-associated comorbidities. Despite the recent advances in the field of obesity pharmacotherapy that have resulted in never-before-seen weight loss outcomes, comorbidity improvement, and even reduction in cardiovascular mortality, there is still a significant interindividual variability in terms of response to antiobesity medications, with a subset of patients not achieving a clinically significant weight loss. Currently, the trial-and-error paradigm for the selection of antiobesity medications results in increased costs and risks for developing side effects, while also reduces engagement in weight management programs for patients with obesity. The implementation of a precision medicine framework to the selection of antiobesity medications might help reduce heterogeneity and optimize weight loss outcomes by identifying unique subsets of patients, or phenotypes, that have a better response to a specific intervention. The detailed study of energy balance regulation holds promise, as actionable behavioral and physiologic traits could help guide antiobesity medication selection based on previous mechanistic studies. Moreover, the rapid advances in genotyping, multi-omics, and big data analysis might hold the key to discover additional signatures or phenotypes that might respond better to a certain intervention and might permit the widespread adoption of a precision medicine approach for obesity management.

Over the past two decades, numerous endoscopic bariatric and metabolic therapies (EBMTs) have been developed with the goal of providing additional effective and safe tools for the treatment of obesity. These treatments are an ultra-minimally invasive option for patients with class I, class II, and class III obesity. Many of these EBMTs can be utilized as primary therapies for treatment-naïve patients or as a treatment for weight regain after bariatric surgery. While the role of EBMTs is not to compete with bariatric surgery, which provides the most effective treatment of obesity, they provide greater weight loss than lifestyle modifications and pharmacotherapy; additionally, when combined with pharmacotherapy, they may help achieve surgical weight loss without the risk of invasive surgery. This review summarizes the most currently available EBMTs, including intragastric balloons (IGBs), endoscopic sleeve gastroplasty (ESG), and endoscopic surgical revision procedures for treating obesity.

Endoscopic bariatric therapies (EBTs) are minimally invasive and safe procedures with favorable weight loss outcomes in obesity treatment. We aimed to present the weight loss mechanism of action of EBTs and an individualized selection method for patients with obesity. We searched PubMed, Medline, Scopus, Embase, and Google Scholar databases for studies on the topic from databases inception to July 1, 2023, written in English. We focused on EBTs potential mechanism of action to induce weight loss. We also present an expert opinion on a novel selection of EBTs based on their mechanism of action. EBTs can result in weight loss through variable mechanisms of action. They can induce earlier satiation, delay gastric emptying, restrict the accommodative response of the stomach, decrease caloric absorption, and alter the secretion of gastrointestinal hormones. Selecting EBTs may be guided through their mechanism of action by which patients with abnormal satiation may benefit more from tissue apposition devices and aspiration therapy while patients with fast gastric emptying may be better candidates for intragastric devices, endoscopic anastomosis devices, and duodenal mucosal resurfacing. Consequently, the selection of EBTs should be guided by the mechanism of action which is specific to each type of therapy.

The treatment of obesity and its comorbidities ranges from clinical management involving lifestyle changes and medications to bariat-ric and metabolic surgery. Various endoscopic bariatric and metabolic therapies recently emerged to address an important therapeutic gap by offering a less invasive alternative to surgery that is more effective than conservative therapies. This article compre-hensively reviews the technical aspects, mechanism of action, outcomes, and future perspectives of one of the most promising endoscopic bariatric and metabolic therapies, named duodenojejunal bypass liner. The duodenojejunal bypass liner mimics the mechanism of Roux-en-Y gastric bypass by preventing food contact with the duodenum and proximal jejunum, thereby initiating a series of hormonal changes that lead to delayed gastric emptying and malabsorptive effects. These physiological changes result in significant weight loss and improved metabolic control, leading to better glycemic levels, preventing dyslipidemia and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and mitigating cardiovascular risk. However, concern ex-ists regarding the safety profile of this device due to the reported high rates of severe adverse events, particularly liver abscesses. Ongo-ing technical changes aiming to reduce adverse events are being evaluated in clinical trials and may provide more reliable data to sup-port its routine use in clinical practice.

Obesity is a chronic, progressive, and relapsing disease of excess adiposity that contributes to more than two hundred medical conditions and is projected to affect more than half the adult population of the United States by the year 2030. Given the limited penetrance of traditional bariatric surgery, as well as the cost and adherence barriers to anti-obesity medications, there is growing interest in the rapidly evolving field of endoscopic bariatric therapies (EBTs). EBTs are minimally invasive, same-day, per-oral endoscopic procedures and include endoscopic sleeve gastroplasty, intragastric balloons, and endoscopic bariatric revisional procedures. This field represents an exciting and innovative subspecialty within gastroenterology. However, building a successful endoscopic bariatric practice requires intentional, coordinated, and sustained efforts to overcome the numerous obstacles to entry. Common barriers include acquisition of the technical and cognitive skillset, practice limitations including the availability of nutrition counseling, facility capabilities, direct-to-consumer marketing, and financial pressures such as facility and anesthesia fees. As the highest-volume center for metabolic and bariatric endoscopy in the United States, we provide insights into successfully establishing an endoscopic bariatric program.

The global obesity epidemic shows no signs of slowing down. Endoscopic bariatric and metabolic therapies (EBMTs) are being increasingly adopted as treatment options for obesity and obesity-related comorbidities, due to their minimally invasive nature and ease of delivery. According to the site of action along the gastrointestinal tract, EBMTs can be divided into two categories: gastric EBMTs, and small intestine-targeted EBMTs. Unlike gastric EBMTs, which work through a volume-restricting mechanism leading to early satiety and reduced caloric intake, small intestine-targeted EBMTs can be metabolically beneficial through foregut and/or hindgut pathways independent of weight loss, and therefore have great potential for the treatment of obesity-related metabolic comorbidities such as type 2 diabetes. Although none of the small intestine-targeted EBMTs have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration to date, their clinical efficacy and safety have been extensively explored in investigational trials. This review aims to summarize and provide a comprehensive understanding of small intestine-targeted EBMTs in clinical and preclinical settings, and to further discuss their potential mechanisms of action.

Obesity is a worldwide epidemic and is the second leading cause of preventable death. The approach to treating obesity involves a multidisciplinary approach including lifestyle interventions, pharmacological therapies, and bariatric surgery. Endoscopic interventions are emerging as important tools in the treatment of obesity with primary and revisional bariatric endoscopic therapies. These include intragastric balloons, aspiration therapy, suturing and plication, duodenal-jejunal bypass liners, endoscopic duodenal mucosal resurfacing, and incisionless magnetic anastomosis systems. Endoscopic interventions have also demonstrated efficacy in treating complications of bariatric surgery. Approaches include stenting, endoscopic internal drainage, and endoscopic vacuum-assisted closure. This review aimed to discuss the current endoscopic procedures used as primary and revisional bariatric therapy including those used for managing bariatric surgical complications.

In recent years, various physical exercise interventions have been developed with a view to reducing comorbidity and morbidity rates among patients with chronic diseases. Regular physical exercise has been shown to reduce hypertension and mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes and obesity are often associated with the development of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, which can lead to liver fibrosis and then (in some cases) nonalcoholic steatohepatitis cirrhosis. We searched the literature for publications on personalized physical exercise programs in cirrhotic patients before and after liver transplantation. Eleven studies in cirrhotic patients and one study in liver transplant recipients were included in the systematic review, the results of which were reported in compliance with the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses guidelines. The personalized physical exercise programs lasted for 6 to 16 weeks. Our review evidenced improvements in peak oxygen consumption and six-minute walk test performance and a reduction in the hepatic venous pressure gradient. In cirrhotic patients, personalized physical exercise programs improve quality of life, are not associated with adverse effects, and (for transplant recipients) might reduce the 90-day hospital readmission rate. However, none of the literature data evidenced reductions in the mortality rates before and after transplantation. Further prospective studies are needed to evaluate the benefit of long-term physical exercise programs in cirrhotic patients before and after liver transplantation.

The prevalence of obesity and diabetes mellitus (DM) has been consistently increasing worldwide. Sharing powerful genetic and environmental features in their pathogenesis, obesity amplifies the impact of genetic susceptibility and environmental factors on DM. The ectopic expansion of adipose tissue and excessive accumulation of certain nutrients and metabolites sabotage the metabolic balance via insulin resistance, dysfunctional autophagy, and microbiome-gut-brain axis, further exacerbating the dysregulation of immunometabolism through low-grade systemic inflammation, leading to an accelerated loss of functional β-cells and gradual elevation of blood glucose. Given these intricate connections, most available treatments of obesity and type 2 DM (T2DM) have a mutual effect on each other. For example, anti-obesity drugs can be anti-diabetic to some extent, and some anti-diabetic medicines, in contrast, have been shown to increase body weight, such as insulin. Meanwhile, surgical procedures, especially bariatric surgery, are more effective for both obesity and T2DM. Besides guaranteeing the availability and accessibility of all the available diagnostic and therapeutic tools, more clinical and experimental investigations on the pathogenesis of these two diseases are warranted to improve the efficacy and safety of the available and newly developed treatments.

This review summarizes the key developments with regard to FDA-approved endoscopic bariatric metabolic therapies (EBMTs) in the last 2 years.

The prevalence of obesity has increased during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, and obesity worsens COVID-19 related outcomes. Several studies have confirmed the safety and short-term efficacy of intragastric balloons (IGBs). In the short-term IGBs may improve steatosis and fibrosis in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and improve quality of life and mental health. Unfortunately weight loss from these temporarily placed devices is not sustained long-term. Endoscopic sleeve gastroplasty (ESG) may be more effective and durable than IGBs, and result in fewer adverse events compared to bariatric surgery. The recently completed MERIT trial may catapult ESG as a first-line EBMT. Aspiration therapy meets safety and effectiveness thresholds for incorporation into routine practice, but overall acceptance has been lower than other FDA-approved EBMTs.

The field of endobariatrics is rapidly maturing. Significant knowledge gaps remain with regards to combining EBMTs with pharmacologic therapy to improve durability of weight loss. The rapid expansion in the literature supporting safety and long-term efficacy ESG may prompt revision of existing guidelines.

Obesity, with its increasing morbidity and prevalence, is now a worldwide public health problem. Obesity and its related comorbidities impose a heavy burden on societal health and the economy. The practice of bariatric surgery has evolved from its early surgical procedures, many of which are no longer routine operations. With clinical practice, research, and experience, bariatric surgery has gradually become an important last resort for the control of weight and obesity-related metabolic diseases in moderately and severely obese patients. However, there is still room for further improvements in bariatric surgical procedures, especially with regard to long-term issues and complications. Endoscopic weight loss technology has developed rapidly in recent years. The advantages of this technology include minimal invasiveness, an obvious weight loss effect, and few complications, thus filling the gap between medications and lifestyle adjustments and surgical treatment of obesity. Endoscopic weight loss technology may even replace surgical bariatric procedures. This review summarized the current status of bariatric metabolic surgery and newly developed bariatric endoscopic procedures.

Cardiometabolic diseases are a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the USA and disproportionately impact racial and ethnic minorities. Multiple factors contribute to this disparity including genetic and socioeconomic factors, the latter of which contributes to disparities both through systemic barriers such as healthcare access and by directly impacting metabolism through epigenetics and environment-related alterations in the gut microbiome. This review will discuss advances in medicine that can be used to identify, prognosticate, and treat cardiometabolic diseases, and how these may be used to address existing disparities.

There is growing research aimed at identifying novel cardiometabolic disease targets and expanding the use of existing pharmacotherapies based on comorbidities. Advances in metabolomics and genomics can give insight into an individual's unique biochemical profile, providing the means for earlier identification of disease and specific treatment targets. Moreover, developments in telehealth and related medical device technologies can expand access to underserved minority populations and improve control of chronic conditions such as diabetes and hypertension. Precision medicine may be integral to bridging the racial gap in cardiometabolic disease outcomes. Developments in genomics, metabolomics, wearable medical devices, and telehealth can result in personalized treatments for patients that account for the socioeconomic and genetic factors that contribute to poor health outcomes in minorities. As research in this field rapidly progresses, special efforts must be made to ensure inclusion of racial and ethnic minority populations in clinical research and equal access to all treatment modalities.

Obesity and its associated comorbidities are rapidly increasing in the US population. Therefore, metabolic associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD), previously known as nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), has become a leading indication for liver transplantation. Lifestyle modifications as a sole therapy have been insufficient to reduce the burden of chronic liver disease secondary to MAFLD. Endoscopic bariatric interventions (EBI) appear to be safe and effective therapies for obesity and chronic liver disease secondary to MAFLD. Gastric EBI include endoscopic sleeve gastroplasty (ESG) and intragastric balloons (IGB). Small bowel EBI are also evolving in the field of bariatric endoscopy.

The American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy's Gastrointestinal Endoscopy Editorial Board reviewed a systematic literature search of original endoscopy-related articles published during 2020 in Gastrointestinal Endoscopy and 10 other high-impact medical and gastroenterology journals. Votes from each individual board member were tallied to identify a consensus list of the 10 most significant topic areas in GI endoscopy over the calendar year of study using 4 criteria: significance, novelty, impact on national health, and impact on global health. The 10 areas identified were as follows: artificial intelligence in endoscopy, coronavirus disease 2019 and GI practice, third-space endoscopy, lumen-apposing metal stents, single-use duodenoscopes and other disposable equipment, endosonographic needle technology and techniques, endoscopic closure devices, advances in GI bleeding management, improvements in polypectomy techniques, and bariatric endoscopy. Each board member contributed a summary of important articles relevant to 1 to 2 topic areas, leading to a collective summary that is presented in this document of the "top 10" endoscopic advances of 2020.

The prevalence of obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and metabolic syndromes is increasing globally. Minimally invasive metabobariatric (MB) endoscopic therapies are adjunct treatments that can potentially bridge the gap between surgical interventions and medical therapy. A growing number of MB techniques are becoming available, allowing for more personalized and patient-targeted treatment options for specific disease states. MB techniques are less invasive than surgery and can precisely target different parts of the gastrointestinal tract that may be responsible for the pathophysiology of obesity and metabolic syndromes such as type 2 diabetes mellitus. These alternatives should be selected on an individualized patient basis to balance the expected clinical outcomes and desired anatomical targets with the level of invasiveness and degree of acceptable risk. Each MB intervention presents great flexibility allowing for a tailored intervention and different levels of patient engagement. Patient awareness and motivation are essential to avoid therapy withdrawal and failure. Differences between MB procedures in terms of weight loss and metabolic benefit will be discussed in this review, along with the insights on clinical decision-making processes to evaluate the potential of further evolution and growth of bariatric and metabolic endoscopy.

Obesity is a chronic illness that requires a multifaceted personalized treatment approach.

Using current guidelines and recent studies in weight management, this article reviews the multiple components of weight management: lifestyle intervention (dietary intervention, physical activity, and behavioral interventions), pharmacotherapy, endoscopic procedures, and surgical procedures. This review briefly discusses specific diets and dietary strategies, compensatory mechanisms acting against weight loss, recent changes to Food and Drug Administration approved antiobesity medications, and technological advances in weight management delivery.

Current literature is lacking large studies on the safety and efficacy of combination therapies involving pharmacotherapy plus 1 or more procedures.

Surgeons have been involved, since the beginning, in the development and evolution of endoscopy. They have been instrumental in developing new methods and have been actively involved in most of the therapeutic applications. The continued evolution of endoscopic technique is inevitable and will involve the integration of new technology with innovative thinking.