• Hepatitis B
• Hepatitis C
• drug users
• meta-analysis
• prevalence
• systematic review

• Humans
• Hepatitis B/epidemiology
• Hepatitis B/virology
• Prevalence
• Hepatitis C/epidemiology
• Hepatitis C/virology
• Drug Users
• Asia/epidemiology
• Hepatitis B virus
• Coinfection/epidemiology
• Coinfection/virology
• Hepacivirus

The introduction of highly effective direct-acting antiviral therapy has changed the hepatitis C virus (HCV) treatment paradigm. However, a recent update on HCV epidemiology in incarcerated settings is necessary to accurately determine the extent of the problem, provide information to policymakers and public healthcare, and meet the World Health Organization's goals by 2030. This systematic review and meta-analysis were performed to determine the prevalence of HCV Ab and RNA in incarcerated settings.

For this systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science for papers published between January 2013 and August 2021. We included studies with information on the prevalence of HCV Ab or RNA in incarcerated settings. A random-effects meta-analysis was done to calculate the pooled prevalence and meta-regression to explore heterogeneity.

Ninety-two unique sources reporting data for 36 countries were included. The estimated prevalence of HCV Ab ranged from 0.3% to 74.4%. HCV RNA prevalence (available in 46 sources) ranged from 0% to 56.3%. Genotypes (available in 19 sources) 1(a) and 3 were most frequently reported in incarcerated settings. HCV/HIV coinfection (available in 36 sources) was highest in Italy, Estonia, Pakistan, and Spain. Statistical analysis revealed that almost all observed heterogeneity reflects real differences in prevalence between studies, considering I² was very high in the meta-analysis.

HCV in incarcerated settings is still a significant problem with a higher prevalence than in the general population. It is of utmost importance to start screening for HCV (Ab and RNA) in incarcerated settings to give clear, reliable and recent figures to plan further treatment. This is all in the context of meeting the 2030 WHO targets which are only less than a decade away.

PROSPERO: CRD42020162616

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-022-14623-6.

Human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV) infection is endemic in some group populations. Prisoners are at high risk of acquiring HTLV infection mainly due to the environment of closed penal institutions, socioeconomic conditions, and risk behaviors. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence, the occurrence of new cases of HTLV infection after a 1-year follow-up, and circulating subtypes of HTLV-1 among prisoners from twelve closed prisons in Mato Grosso do Sul state, Central Brazil. A total of 1,507 prisoners were randomly enrolled in the cross-sectional study. Out of the 1,507 participants, 1,000 prisoners, susceptible to HTLV infection, were included in the prospective cohort study. In the cross-sectional study, serological evidence of HTLV infection was 0.4% (CI 95%: 0.1-0.7), tested for anti-HTLV antibodies by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Three samples were positive for HTLV-1, two samples were positive for HTLV-2, and 1 sample was indeterminate by the Western blot method. The presence of HTLV proviral DNA was detected in all positive samples by amplification of the HTLV tax gene through nested-PCR. Phylogenetic analysis showed that HTLV-1 samples belonged to the Cosmopolitan subtype Transcontinental subgroup. From a cohort of 1,000 individuals, no new case of HTLV infection was detected. Although the prevalence rate of HTLV infection found in this study was similar to that observed in the Brazilian general population, the lack of access to preventive interventions and harm reduction measures all contribute to increasing the risk of HTLV transmission and acquisition among this key and vulnerable population.

• Fundação de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento do Ensino, Ciência e Tecnologia do Estado de Mato Grosso do Sul

• Anti-Hepatitis B core
• Epidemiology
• Ethnic group
• Genotype
• HBsAg prevalence
• Hepatitis B virus
• Suriname

• Adult
• Ethnicity
• Female
• Genotype
• Hepatitis B/epidemiology
• Hepatitis B/ethnology
• Hepatitis B/virology
• Hepatitis B Antibodies/blood
• Hepatitis B Core Antigens/immunology
• Hepatitis B Surface Antigens/blood
• Hepatitis B virus/classification
• Hepatitis B virus/genetics
• Hepatitis B virus/immunology
• Humans
• Male
• Middle Aged
• Phylogeny
• Prevalence
• Risk Factors
• Suriname/epidemiology
• Viral Proteins/genetics

• AIDS
• Co-infection
• HIV
• Hepatitis B
• Hepatitis C
• Prevalence
• Prisons

• Coinfection/epidemiology
• Cross-Sectional Studies
• HIV Infections/complications
• HIV Infections/epidemiology
• Hepacivirus
• Hepatitis B/epidemiology
• Hepatitis C/complications
• Hepatitis C/epidemiology
• Humans
• Prevalence
• Prisoners

Known for its high genetic diversity and variation in genotypic presence in different regions of the world, hepatitis C virus (HCV) is estimated to infect about 71 million people globally. Selection of an appropriate therapeutic regimen largely depends on the identification of the genotype responsible for the infection. This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to provide a comprehensive view of HCV genotype and subtype distribution in Southeast Asia (SEA). The review was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA). We searched five databases without year and language restrictions. Data from 90 eligible studies involving 15,089 genotypes and 9,646 subtypes representing 10 SEA countries were analyzed. The pooled estimates showed that genotype 1 (46.8%) [95% CI, 43.2–50.4; I² = 92.77%; p < 0.001] was the most dominant HCV genotype in the region, followed by genotype 3 (23.1%) [95% CI, 19.4–27.2; I² = 93.03%; p < 0.001], genotype 6 (16.5%) [95% CI, 13.8–19.6], genotype 2 (4.6%) [95% CI, 3.5–5.9], genotype 4 (1.1%) [95% CI, 0.7–1.5] and genotype 5 (0.8%) [95% CI, 0.4–1.3]. Philippines had the highest prevalence of genotypes 1 and 2. Genotype 6 became more prevalent after year 2000. Over 40 different subtypes were identified, with subtypes 1b (26.3%), 1a (21.3%), and 3a (14.3%) being the most prevalent of all the reported subtypes. Although on a global scale, genotype 6 is considered highly prevalent in SEA, evidence from this study reveals that it is the third most prevalent genotype within the region.

• Asia, Southeastern/epidemiology
• Genetic Variation
• Genotype
• Hepacivirus/genetics
• Hepatitis C/epidemiology
• Hepatitis C/genetics
• Humans
• Prevalence

• Universiti Sains Malaysia

The prison population is considered at high risk of acquiring infectious diseases due to confined conditions, behavioral factors, injection drug use, unprotected sexual activity, non-professional tattooing and scarification, and needle sharing. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a blood borne pathogen mostly transmitted via percutaneous exposure that results in inflammation of the liver. It is one of the public health problem worldwide and is the principal cause of parenterally transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis. The study was aimed at evaluating the prevalence of HCV among prison inmates in Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria and the associated factors.

The study took a descriptive cross sectional approach using multi-stage sampling technique. One hundred and forty-two (142) prison inmates within the age range of 18–50 years and above were recruited for this study.

Forty two (42); [29.6%] of the participating prison inmates were seropositive for HCV. Gender stratification showed that 31.0% of the males were seropositive for HCV while 15.4% of the females were seropositive for HCV. Fisher exact test showed that gender, age, marital status, occupation and level of education had no association in distribution of seroprevalence of HCV (p > 0.05) but the duration in prison was significantly associated with distribution of seropositivity of HCV in the studied population (p < 0.05). Bivariate logistic regression showed that tattoo/scarification, injection drug use, history of blood transfusion, sexual experience, shaving equipment sharing and multiple sexual partners were not risk factor for distribution of HCV prevalence in the studied population (p > 0.05). However, 23.5% who had tattoo/scarification, 29.6% who used injection drug, 33.3% who had history of blood transfusion, 29.8% who had sexual experience, 21.2% who shared shaving equipment, and 28.3% who had multiple sex partners were seropositive for HCV.

Approximately 29.6% prevalence of Hepatitis C virus infection observed among inmates studied is high and calls for concern. Attitude and behaviors by inmates such as tattooing/scarification, injection drugs use, sharing of shaving equipment, multiple sexual partners should be discouraged.

• Hepatitis C
• Hepatitis C prevalence
• Infectious disease
• Inmates
• Prison

Both Human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) are endemic in Brazil. In Salvador, the capital of the state of Bahia, 2% and 1.5% of the general population is infected with HTLV-1 or HCV. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence and the distribution of HTLV/HCV coinfection in Bahia. This cross-sectional study was conducted at the Central Laboratory of Public Health for the state of Bahia (LACEN-BA). All samples in the LACEN database submitted to serological testing for anti-HCV (chemiluminescence) and anti-HTLV-1/2 (chemiluminescence/ELISA and Western blot) from 2004 to 2013 were included. Infection rate was expressed as the number of infected individuals per 100,000 inhabitants in a given municipality; municipalities were grouped by microregion for further analysis. A total of 120,192 samples originating from 358 of the 417 municipalities in Bahia (85.8%) were evaluated. The overall HCV coinfection rate in HTLV-positive was 14.31% [2.8 (ranging from 0.4 to 8.0) per 100,000 inhabitants.] Twenty-one (5%) of the municipalities reported at least one case of HTLV/HCV coinfection. Most cases (87%) were concentrated in three microregions (Salvador: 79%, Ilhéus/Itabuna: 5%, Porto Seguro: 3%). Coinfection occurred more frequently in males (51%) with a mean age of 59 [(IQR): 46–59] years. HTLV/HCV coinfection in the state of Bahia was more frequently found among males living in the microregions of Salvador, Ilhéus/Itabuna and Porto Seguro, all of which are known to be endemic for HTLV infection.

• Co-infection
• Female Sex Workers (FSWs)
• Hepatitis B Virus (HBV)
• Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)
• Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
• People Who Inject Drugs (PWID)

The prison system in Paraná, Brazil, is experiencing serious problems related to the increasing number of prisoners. Control of hepatitis C virus (HCV) has become more intense because the incarcerated population is considered a high-risk group for contagious diseases due to the favorable conditions found in prisons for the spread of these morbidities. The objective of this study was to identify features associated with hepatitis C infection among male prisoners in correctional institutions of Paraná state, Brazil.

This was a case-control study (27 cases and 54 controls) of men incarcerated in 11 penitentiaries in Paraná, Brazil. Information was obtained through a questionnaire in a cross-sectional epidemiological survey on HCV infection during the period from May 2015 to December 2016. Eligible men were recruited after testing positive for anti-HCV antibodies. Cases and controls were selected based on serological results of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and were matched by age, location of the penitentiary, and time in prison. Logistic regression analysis was used to identify risk factors for HCV seropositivity.

The main significant independent risk factor for the acquisition of HCV infection was the use of injectable drugs (OR = 4.00; 95%CI:1.41–11.35; p < 0.001).

This study provides evidence that HCV infection is associated with drug use by this population. This information is pivotal for tailoring prevention programs and guiding specific socioeducational measures that aim to reduce or prevent HCV transmission within the prison setting.

• Hepatitis C
• Prisoners
• Risk factors

In Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR), which borders China, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, and Myanmar, the number of HIV-infected patients has increased in recent years. HIV-infected patients diagnosed in Lao PDR are enrolled in a registration network and receive antiretroviral therapy (ART) covered by governmental financial support. Based on the registration network, we investigated intestinal helminth infections and coinfection with HTLV-1 in HIV-infected patients treated with an early intervention using ART in Lao PDR.

This cross-sectional study of all 252 HIV-infected patients at Savannakhet Provincial Hospital, located in the southern part of Lao PDR, was conducted between February and March 2018. Socioepidemiological information and clinical information were collected from a registration network database and by questionnaire administered to participants. Microscopic examination of intestinal helminth infections in stool samples and particle agglutination for anti-HTLV-1 antibody in plasma were performed.

The median age of all 252 participants was 39 years old (range, 18–59). Based on the registration network database, there were 156 (61.9%) HIV-infected patients with a CD4-positive cell count ≥ 200 cells/μL and 146 (57.9%) with an HIV viral load < 250 copies/mL. Among 212 stool samples, 75 (35.4%) were found to contain one or more intestinal helminth species, including Opisthorchis viverrini (16.5%), Strongyloides stercoralis (10.8%), hookworm (10.4%), and Taenia saginata (3.3%). This rate of intestinal helminth infections was lower than that of a previous report conducted before the establishment of the registration network for HIV-infected patients in Lao PDR. There was no significant association between intestinal helminth infections and a lower CD4-positive T cell count or higher HIV viral load. HIV-infected patients with anti-HTLV-1 antibody positivity were not found in this cohort.

The registration network and an early intervention using ART may provide good medical care and improve the clinical course of HIV-infected patients in Lao PDR. However, the incidence of intestinal helminth infections remains high at 35.4%. The development of a specific medical care system for helminth infection for HIV-infected patients is necessary.

• Helminth infections
• Human T cell leukemia virus type I
• Human immunodeficiency virus
• Lao People’s Democratic Republic
• Registration network

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is one of the major public health problems both in developed and developing countries. Prison represents a high-risk environment for prisoners, in that it is characterized by high-risk behaviors such as injecting drug use (IDU), tattooing, unprotected sexual intercourses, or sharing syringes. The aim of this study was to quantitatively evaluate the prevalence of HCV among Iranian prisoners conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis.

We searched different scholarly databases including Embase, PubMed/MEDLINE, ISI/Web of Sciences, the Cochrane library, Scopus, CINAHL, and PsycINFO as well as Iranian bibliographic thesauri (namely, Barakatns, MagIran, and SID) up to December 2017. The Newcastle Ottawa Scale (NOS) was used to assess the quality of the studies included. HCV prevalence rate with its 95% confidence interval (CI) was estimated using the DerSimonian-Laird random-effects model, with Freeman-Tukey double arcsine transformation. Egger’s regression test was used to evaluate publication bias.

Finally, 17 articles were selected based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. Overall, 18,693 prisoners were tested. Based on the random-effects model, the prevalence of HCV among Iranian prisoners was 28% (CI 95% 21–36) with heterogeneity of I² = 99.3% (p = 0.00). All studies used an ELISA test for the evaluation of HCV antibodies. The findings of this study showed that the highest prevalence rate (53%) was among prisoners who inject drugs.

The findings of our study showed that the prevalence of HCV among Iranian prisoners is dramatically high. Managing this issue in Iran’s prisons requires careful attention to the availability of health facilities and instruments, such as screening, and harm reduction policies, such as giving sterile syringes and needles to prisoners. An integrated program of training for prisoners, prison personnel and medical staff is also needed to improve the level of health condition in prisons.

• Hepatitis C virus
• Iran
• Meta-analysis
• Prevalence
• Prisoners
• Systematic review

• Blood-borne viral infections
• HIV
• Health in prison
• Hepatitis B
• Hepatitis C
• Prisoners

• HBV Prevention
• Hepatitis B
• Hepatitis B in Prisoners
• Vaccination
• injection drug use
• sexually transmitted infections (STI)

• K24 DA022112 NIDA NIH HHS
• P20 GM125507 NIGMS NIH HHS
• P30 AI042853 NIAID NIH HHS

• HIV
• HTLV-1/2
• Sub Saharan Africa
• inmates
• mozambique

• Adult
• Brazil/epidemiology
• Cohort Studies
• Cross-Sectional Studies
• Female
• Hepatitis C/epidemiology
• Humans
• Incidence
• Male
• Middle Aged
• Multivariate Analysis
• Prevalence
• Prisoners
• Risk Factors
• Young Adult

• HIV
• Harm reduction
• Health in prison
• Injecting drug use
• Offender health
• Public health

• Genotype
• Hepatitis C
• PWID
• People who inject drugs
• Systematic review

• hbv
• hcv
• hiv
• inmates
• italy
• virus variability

• Adult
• Aged
• Blood-Borne Pathogens
• Cross-Sectional Studies
• Female
• HIV Infections/blood
• HIV Infections/diagnosis
• HIV Infections/epidemiology
• HIV Infections/virology
• HIV-1/genetics
• Hepacivirus/genetics
• Hepatitis B/blood
• Hepatitis B/diagnosis
• Hepatitis B/epidemiology
• Hepatitis B/virology
• Hepatitis B virus/genetics
• Hepatitis C/blood
• Hepatitis C/diagnosis
• Hepatitis C/epidemiology
• Hepatitis C/virology
• Humans
• Italy
• Male
• Middle Aged
• Prevalence

Data regarding the distribution of Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA)-E alleles and their association with blood-borne pathogen infections/co-infections are limited for many populations, including Indonesia.

The aim of this study was to analyze the association between HLA-E allelic variants and infection with blood-borne pathogens such as hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), hepatitis D virus (HDV), torque teno virus (TTV), GB virus C (GBV-C), and Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) in Indonesian Javanese human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) patients.

A total of 320 anti-HIV-positive blood samples were analyzed for HBV, HCV, HDV, TTV, GBV-C, and T. gondii infection status and its association with HLA-E allelic variants.

Nucleic acid was extracted from plasma samples and used for the molecular detection of HBV DNA, HCV RNA, HDV RNA, TTV DNA, and GBV-C RNA, whereas hepatitis B surface antigen, anti-HCV, immunoglobulin M and G (IgM and IgG) anti-T. gondii were detected through serological testing. The blood samples were genotyped for HLA-E loci using a sequence-specific primer-polymerase chain reaction.

Either the Chi-square or Fisher's exact test was performed to analyze the frequency of HLA-E alleles and blood-borne pathogen infections in the population. Odds ratios (ORs) were calculated to measure the association between the antibodies found and the participants’ possible risk behaviors. A logistic regression analysis was used to assess the associations.

HLA-E*101/0101 was associated with HCV/TTV co-infection (adjusted OR [aOR]: 3.5; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.156-10.734; P = 0.027) and IgM/IgG anti-Toxo positivity (aOR: 27.0; 95% CI: 3.626-200.472; P = 0.001). HLA-E*103/0103 was associated with TTV co-infection (aOR: 2.7; 95% CI: 1.509-4.796; P = 0.001).

HLA-E alleles in Indonesian Javanese HIV patients were found to be associated with HCV, TTV, and toxoplasma co-infections.

• Hepatitis C virus
• Human immunodeficiency virus
• Human leukocyte antigen-E
• Torque teno virus
• Toxoplasma

• Clinical characteristics
• Epidemiology
• Hepatitis B virus
• Indonesia
• Prevention

• Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/virology
• Genotype
• Hepatitis B Antigens/blood
• Hepatitis B virus/genetics
• Hepatitis B virus/immunology
• Hepatitis B, Chronic/blood
• Hepatitis B, Chronic/epidemiology
• Hepatitis B, Chronic/prevention & control
• Hepatitis B, Chronic/virology
• Humans
• Indonesia/epidemiology
• Liver Neoplasms/virology
• Prevalence

• Care
• Chronic hepatitis C
• Management
• Prisoners
• Treatment

• Disease burden
• Hepatitis C
• People who inject drugs
• Treatment access

• Asia
• Developing Countries
• Europe, Eastern
• Health Services Accessibility
• Hepatitis C/epidemiology
• Hepatitis C/etiology
• Hepatitis C/therapy
• Humans
• Prevalence
• Substance Abuse, Intravenous/complications
• Substance Abuse, Intravenous/epidemiology

To estimate the prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in Brazil’s inmate population.

Systematic review on hepatitis C virus infection in the inmate population. Brazilian studies published from January 1, 1989 to February 20, 2014 were evaluated. The methodological quality of the studies was assessed using a scale of 0 to 8 points.

Eleven eligible studies were analyzed and provided data on hepatitis C virus infection among 4,375 inmates from seven states of Brazil, with a mean quality classification of 7.4. The overall hepatitis C virus prevalence among Brazilian inmates was 13.6% (ranging from 1.0% to 41.0%, depending on the study). The chances of inmates being seropositive for hepatitis C virus in the states of Minas Gerais (MG), Sergipe (SE), Mato Grosso do Sul (MS), Rio Grande do Sul (RS), Goiás (GO) and Espirito Santo (ES) were 84.0% (95%CI 0.06;0.45), 92.0% (95%CI 0.04;0.13), 88.0% (95%CI 0.09;0.18), 74.0% (95%CI 0.16;0.42), 84.0% (95%CI 0.08;0.31) and 89.0% (95%CI 0.01;0.05) respectively, lower than that observed in the Sao Paulo state (seroprevalence of 29.3%). The four studies conducted in the city of Sao Paulo revealed a lower prevalence in more recent studies compared to older ones.

The highest prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in Brazil’s inmate population was found in Sao Paulo, which may reflect the urban diversity of the country. Despite Brazilian studies having good methodological quality to evaluate the prevalence of the hepatitis C virus, they are scarce and lack data on risk factors associated with this infection, which could support decisions on prevention and implementation of public health policies for Brazilian prisons.

• APOBEC
• HBV
• HCV
• HIV
• TTV
• Toxoplasma gondii

• Adult
• Asia, Southeastern/epidemiology
• Female
• Genotype
• Geography
• Hepacivirus/classification
• Hepacivirus/genetics
• Hepatitis C/epidemiology
• Hepatitis C/virology
• Humans
• Male
• Middle Aged
• Phylogeny
• Phylogeography
• Population Surveillance
• RNA, Viral/genetics
• Thailand/epidemiology

• Antiretroviral therapy
• Drug injection
• HIV
• Indonesia
• Methadone
• Prisons

• ATL
• HAM/TSP
• HBV
• HTLV-I
• coinfection

• hiv
• hepatitis c
• hiv-hcv co-infection
• risk factors
• south and southeast asia
• injection drug use
• blood donor
• prevalence
• global epidemic
• hiv-positive
• southeast asia
• south asia

• Asia, Southeastern/epidemiology
• Coinfection/epidemiology
• Coinfection/prevention & control
• Comorbidity
• Drug Users/statistics & numerical data
• Global Health/trends
• HIV Infections/epidemiology
• HIV Infections/prevention & control
• Hepatitis C/epidemiology
• Hepatitis C/prevention & control
• Humans
• Prevalence
• Risk Factors

At least 600000 individuals worldwide annually die of hepatitis B virus (HBV)-related diseases, such as chronic hepatitis B (CHB), liver cirrhosis (LC), and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Many viral factors, such as viral load, genotype, and specific viral mutations, are known to affect disease progression. HBV reverse transcriptase does not have a proofreading function, therefore, many HBV genotypes, sub-genotypes, mutants, and recombinants emerge. Differences between genotypes in response to antiviral treatment have been determined. To date, 10 HBV genotypes, scattered across different geographical regions, have been identified. For example, genotype A has a tendency for chronicity, whereas viral mutations are frequently encountered in genotype C. Both chronicity and mutation frequency are common in genotype D. LC and progression to HCC are more commonly encountered with genotypes C and D than the other genotypes. Pathogenic differences between HBV genotypes explain disease intensity, progression to LC, and HCC. In conclusion, genotype determination in CHB infection is important in estimating disease progression and planning optimal antiviral treatment.

• Hepatitis B virus
• Genotypes
• Chronic hepatitis B
• Anti-viral therapy
• Viral mutation

• Antiviral Agents/therapeutic use
• Biomarkers/blood
• Drug Resistance, Viral
• Genotype
• Global Health
• Hepatitis B/diagnosis
• Hepatitis B/drug therapy
• Hepatitis B/epidemiology
• Hepatitis B/immunology
• Hepatitis B/virology
• Hepatitis B Surface Antigens/blood
• Hepatitis B e Antigens/blood
• Hepatitis B virus/drug effects
• Hepatitis B virus/genetics
• Hepatitis B virus/immunology
• Hepatitis B virus/pathogenicity
• Humans
• Phenotype
• Treatment Outcome