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Shergujri DA, Khanday MA, Noor A, Adnan M, Arif I, Raza SN, Mir RH, Khan NA. Next-generation biopolymer gels: innovations in drug delivery and theranostics. J Mater Chem B 2025; 13:3222-3244. [PMID: 39903271 DOI: 10.1039/d4tb02068e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2025]
Abstract
Biopolymers or natural polymers like chitosan, cellulose, alginate, collagen, etc. have gained significant interest recently due to their remarkable tunable properties that make them appropriate for a variety of applications & play a crucial role in everyday life. The features of biopolymers which include biodegradability, biocompatibility, sustainability, affordability, & availability are vital for creating products for use in biomedical fields. Apart from these characteristics, smart or stimuli-responsive biopolymers also show a distinctive property of being susceptible to various factors like pH, temperature, light intensity, & electrical or magnetic fields. The current review would present a brief idea about smart biopolymer gels along with their biomedical applications. The use of smart biopolymers gels as theranostic agents are also discussed in the present review. This review also focuses on the application of biopolymers in the fields of drug delivery, cancer treatment, tissue engineering & wound healing. These areas demonstrate the development and utilization of different types of biopolymers in current biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danish Ahmad Shergujri
- Pharmaceutics Division, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kashmir, Hazratbal, Srinagar-190006, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
| | - Murtaza Ahmad Khanday
- Pharmaceutics Division, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kashmir, Hazratbal, Srinagar-190006, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
| | - Aisha Noor
- Pharmaceutics Division, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kashmir, Hazratbal, Srinagar-190006, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
| | - Mohd Adnan
- Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Ha'il, Ha'il, P.O. Box 2440, Saudi Arabia
| | - Iqra Arif
- Pharmaceutics Division, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kashmir, Hazratbal, Srinagar-190006, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
| | - Syed Naiem Raza
- Pharmaceutics Division, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kashmir, Hazratbal, Srinagar-190006, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
| | - Reyaz Hassan Mir
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Division, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kashmir, Hazratbal, Srinagar-190006, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
| | - Nisar Ahmad Khan
- Pharmaceutics Division, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kashmir, Hazratbal, Srinagar-190006, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
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2
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Vijayaram S, Sinha R, Faggio C, Ringø E, Chou CC. Biopolymer encapsulation for improved probiotic delivery: Advancements and challenges. AIMS Microbiol 2024; 10:986-1023. [PMID: 39628726 PMCID: PMC11609427 DOI: 10.3934/microbiol.2024043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2024] [Revised: 09/27/2024] [Accepted: 10/22/2024] [Indexed: 12/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Probiotics, known for their health benefits as living microorganisms, hold significant importance across various fields, including agriculture, aquaculture, nutraceuticals, and pharmaceuticals. Optimal delivery and storage of probiotic cells are essential to maximize their effectiveness. Biopolymers, derived from living sources, plants, animals, and microbes, offer a natural solution to enhance probiotic capabilities and they possess distinctive qualities such as stability, flexibility, biocompatibility, sustainability, biodegradability, and antibacterial properties, making them ideal for probiotic applications. These characteristics create optimal environments for the swift and precisely targeted delivery of probiotic cells that surpass the effectiveness of unencapsulated probiotic cells. Various encapsulation techniques using diverse biopolymers are employed for this purpose. These techniques are not limited to spray drying, emulsion, extrusion, spray freeze drying, layer by layer, ionic gelation, complex coacervation, vibration technology, electrospinning, phase separation, sol-gel encapsulation, spray cooling, fluidized, air suspension coating, compression coating, co-crystallization coating, cyclodextrin inclusion, rotating disk, and solvent evaporation methods. This review addresses the latest advancements in probiotic encapsulation materials and techniques, bridging gaps in our understanding of biopolymer-based encapsulation systems. Specifically, we address the limitations of current encapsulation methods in maintaining probiotic viability under extreme environmental conditions and the need for more targeted and efficient delivery mechanisms. Focusing on the interactions between biopolymers and probiotics reveals how customized encapsulation approaches can enhance probiotic stability, survival, and functionality. Through detailed comparative analysis of the effectiveness of various encapsulation methods, we identify key strategies for optimizing probiotic deployment in challenging conditions such as high-temperature processing, acidic environments, and gastrointestinal transit. The findings presented in this review highlight the superior performance of novel encapsulation methods using biopolymer blends and advanced technologies like electrospinning and layer-by-layer assembly, which provide enhanced protection and controlled release of probiotics by offering insights into the development of more robust encapsulation systems that ensure the sustained viability and bioavailability of probiotics, thus advancing their application across multiple industries. In conclusion, this paper provides the foundation for future research to refine encapsulation techniques to overcome the challenges of probiotic delivery in clinical and commercial settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srirengaraj Vijayaram
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung-Hsing University, 145 Xingda Rd. Taichung, 40227, Taiwan
| | - Reshma Sinha
- Department of Animal Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Central University of Himachal Pradesh, Kangra, 176206, India
| | - Caterina Faggio
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Ferdinando Stagno d'Alcontres, 31, 98166 S. Agata-Messina, Italy
| | - Einar Ringø
- Norwegian College of Fishery Science, Faculty of Bioscience, Fisheries, and Economics, UiT the Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, 9037, Norway
| | - Chi-Chung Chou
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung-Hsing University, 145 Xingda Rd. Taichung, 40227, Taiwan
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Alkhalidi HM, Alahmadi AA, Rizg WY, Yahya EB, H P S AK, Mushtaq RY, Badr MY, Safhi AY, Hosny KM. Revolutionizing Cancer Treatment: Biopolymer-Based Aerogels as Smart Platforms for Targeted Drug Delivery. Macromol Rapid Commun 2024; 45:e2300687. [PMID: 38430068 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202300687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
Cancer stands as a leading cause of global mortality, with chemotherapy being a pivotal treatment approach, either alone or in conjunction with other therapies. The primary goal of these therapies is to inhibit the growth of cancer cells specifically, while minimizing harm to healthy dividing cells. Conventional treatments, often causing patient discomfort due to side effects, have led researchers to explore innovative, targeted cancer cell therapies. Thus, biopolymer-based aerogels emerge as innovative platforms, showcasing unique properties that respond intelligently to diverse stimuli. This responsiveness enables precise control over the release of anticancer drugs, enhancing therapeutic outcomes. The significance of these aerogels lies in their ability to offer targeted drug delivery with increased efficacy, biocompatibility, and a high drug payload. In this comprehensive review, the author discuss the role of biopolymer-based aerogels as an emerging functionalized platforms in anticancer drug delivery. The review addresses the unique properties of biopolymer-based aerogels showing their smart behavior in responding to different stimuli including temperature, pH, magnetic and redox potential to control anticancer drug release. Finally, the review discusses the application of different biopolymer-based aerogel in delivering different anticancer drugs and also discusses the potential of these platforms in gene delivery applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hala M Alkhalidi
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Amerh Aiad Alahmadi
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Waleed Y Rizg
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, 21589, Saudi Arabia
- Center of Innovation in Personalized Medicine, 3D Bioprinting Unit, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Esam Bashir Yahya
- Bioprocess Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, 11800, Malaysia
- Green Biopolymer, Coatings and Packaging Cluster, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, 11800, Malaysia
| | - Abdul Khalil H P S
- Green Biopolymer, Coatings and Packaging Cluster, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, 11800, Malaysia
- Bioresource Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, 11800, Malaysia
| | - Rayan Y Mushtaq
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Clinical Pharmacy, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, 31441, Saudi Arabia
| | - Moutaz Y Badr
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, 24381, Saudi Arabia
| | - Awaji Y Safhi
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan, 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Khaled M Hosny
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, 21589, Saudi Arabia
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Opriș O, Mormile C, Lung I, Stegarescu A, Soran ML, Soran A. An Overview of Biopolymers for Drug Delivery Applications. APPLIED SCIENCES 2024; 14:1383. [DOI: 10.3390/app14041383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2025]
Abstract
Nowadays, drug delivery has an important role in medical therapy. The use of biopolymers in developing drug delivery systems (DDSs) is increasingly attracting attention due to their remarkable and numerous advantages, in contrast to conventional polymers. Biopolymers have many advantages (biodegradability, biocompatibility, renewability, affordability, and availability), which are extremely important for developing materials with applications in the biomedical field. Additionally, biopolymers are appropriate when they improve functioning and have a number of positive effects on human life. Therefore, this review presents the most used biopolymers for biomedical applications, especially in drug delivery. In addition, by combining different biopolymers DDSs with tailored functional properties (e.g., physical properties, biodegradability) can be developed. This review summarizes and provides data on the progress of research on biopolymers (chitosan, alginate, starch, cellulose, albumin, silk fibroin, collagen, and gelatin) used in DDSs, their preparation, and mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ocsana Opriș
- National Institute for Research and Development of Isotopic and Molecular Technologies, 67-103 Donat, 400293 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Cristina Mormile
- National Institute for Research and Development of Isotopic and Molecular Technologies, 67-103 Donat, 400293 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Rome La Sapienza, P. le Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
- INFN—National Laboratories of Frascati, Via Enrico Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy
| | - Ildiko Lung
- National Institute for Research and Development of Isotopic and Molecular Technologies, 67-103 Donat, 400293 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Adina Stegarescu
- National Institute for Research and Development of Isotopic and Molecular Technologies, 67-103 Donat, 400293 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Maria-Loredana Soran
- National Institute for Research and Development of Isotopic and Molecular Technologies, 67-103 Donat, 400293 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Albert Soran
- Department of Chemistry, Supramolecular Organic and Organometallic Chemistry Centre (SOOMCC), Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Babes-Bolyai University, 11 Arany Janos, 400028 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
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Lewandowska K, Sionkowska A, Kurzawa M. Physical Properties and Release Profiles of Chitosan Mixture Films Containing Salicin, Glycerin and Hyaluronic Acid. Molecules 2023; 28:7827. [PMID: 38067555 PMCID: PMC10708376 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28237827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Chitosan (CS) has gained considerable attention due to its distinctive properties and its broad spectrum of potential applications, spanning cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and biomedical uses. In this study, we characterized thin films comprising chitosan mixtures containing salicin (SAL) and glycerin (GLY), both with and without hyaluronic acid (HA) as active ingredients. Characterization was achieved through release studies of SAL, infrared spectroscopy, microscopy techniques (AFM and SEM), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). CS/GLY/SAL and CS/GLY/SAL/HA mixture films were fabricated using the solvent evaporation technique. We probed interactions between the components in the chitosan mixtures via infrared analysis. The concentration of released salicin was monitored at various time intervals in a phosphate buffer (PBS) at pH 5.5 using HPLC. The linear regression analysis for the calibration graph showed a good linear relationship (R2 = 0.9996) in the working concentration range of 5-205 mg/dm3. Notably, the release of SAL reached its peak after 20 min. Furthermore, the introduction of HA caused changes in the films' morphology, but their roughness remained largely unchanged. The results obtained were compared, indicating that the release of SAL in the CS mixture films is sufficient for diverse applications, including wound-healing materials and cosmetic beauty masks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Lewandowska
- Department of Biomaterials and Cosmetic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Gagarin 7 Street, 87-100 Torun, Poland;
| | - Alina Sionkowska
- Department of Biomaterials and Cosmetic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Gagarin 7 Street, 87-100 Torun, Poland;
| | - Marzanna Kurzawa
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Applied Spectroscopy, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Gagarin 7 Street, 87-100 Torun, Poland;
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6
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Andone BA, Handrea-Dragan IM, Botiz I, Boca S. State-of-the-art and future perspectives in infertility diagnosis: Conventional versus nanotechnology-based assays. NANOMEDICINE : NANOTECHNOLOGY, BIOLOGY, AND MEDICINE 2023; 54:102709. [PMID: 37717928 DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2023.102709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 08/27/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/19/2023]
Abstract
According to the latest World Health Organization statistics, around 50 to 80 million people worldwide suffer from infertility, amongst which male factors are responsible for around 20 to 30 % of all infertility cases while 50 % were attributed to the female ones. As it is becoming a recurrent health problem worldwide, clinicians require more accurate methods for the improvement of both diagnosis and treatment schemes. By emphasizing the potential use of innovative methods for the rapid identification of the infertility causes, this review presents the news from this dynamic domain and highlights the benefits brought by emerging research fields. A systematic description of the standard techniques used in clinical protocols for diagnosing infertility in both genders is firstly provided, followed by the presentation of more accurate and comprehensive nanotechnology-related analysis methods such as nanoscopic-resolution imaging, biosensing approaches and assays that employ nanomaterials in their design. Consequently, the implementation of nanotechnology related tools in clinical practice, as recently demonstrated in the selection of spermatozoa, the detection of key proteins in the fertilization process or the testing of DNA integrity or the evaluation of oocyte quality, might confer excellent advantages both for improving the assessment of infertility, and for the success of the fertilization process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca-Astrid Andone
- Interdisciplinary Research Institute in Bio-Nano-Sciences, Babes-Bolyai University, 42 T. Laurian Str., 400271 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; Faculty of Physics, Babes-Bolyai University, 1 M. Kogalniceanu Str., 400084 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Iuliana M Handrea-Dragan
- Interdisciplinary Research Institute in Bio-Nano-Sciences, Babes-Bolyai University, 42 T. Laurian Str., 400271 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; Faculty of Physics, Babes-Bolyai University, 1 M. Kogalniceanu Str., 400084 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Ioan Botiz
- Interdisciplinary Research Institute in Bio-Nano-Sciences, Babes-Bolyai University, 42 T. Laurian Str., 400271 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Sanda Boca
- Interdisciplinary Research Institute in Bio-Nano-Sciences, Babes-Bolyai University, 42 T. Laurian Str., 400271 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; National Institute for Research and Development of Isotopic and Molecular Technologies, 67-103 Donat Str., 400293 Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
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7
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Optimization of Vibration Pretreatment Microwave Curing in Composite Laminate Molding Process. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15020296. [PMID: 36679177 PMCID: PMC9866206 DOI: 10.3390/polym15020296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Revised: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Vibration pretreatment microwave curing is a high-quality and efficient composite out-of-autoclave molding process. Focusing on interlaminar shear strength, the effects of pretreatment temperature, pretreatment time and vibration acceleration on the molding performance of composite components were analyzed sequentially using the orthogonal test design method; a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and optical digital microscope (ODM) were used to analyze the void content and fiber-resin bonding state of the specimens under different curing and molding processes. The results show that the influence order of the different vibration process parameters on the molding quality of the components was: vibration acceleration > pretreatment temperature > pretreatment time. Within the parameters analyzed in this study, the optimal vibration pretreatment process parameters were: pretreatment temperature of 90 °C, pretreatment time of 30 min, and vibration acceleration of 10 g. Using these parameters, the interlaminar shear strength of the component was 82.12 MPa and the void content was 0.37%. Compared with the microwave curing process, the void content decreased by 71.8%, and the interlaminar shear strength increased by 31.6%. The microscopic morphology and mechanical properties basically reached the same level as the standard autoclave process, which achieved a high-quality out-of-autoclave curing and molding manufacturing of aerospace composite components.
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Chitosan Superabsorbent Biopolymers in Sanitary and Hygiene Applications. INT J POLYM SCI 2023. [DOI: 10.1155/2023/4717905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The consumption of diapers and sanitary products has constantly been rising. Several problems are associated with using chemical-based sanitary products, which are difficult to degrade easily and cause nappy rash and bacterial infections in babies. Therefore, there is an increasing shift towards natural-based sanitary products because of their biodegradability, non-toxicity, and biocompatibility. Several studies are being carried out in which researchers have incorporated natural polymers, such as cellulose, starch, alginate, and xantham gum for producing superabsorbent materials. Chitosan (CS) is one such natural polymer that exhibits anti-microbial activity because of the functional groups present in its structure. Moreover, it is also easily available, biodegradable, and non-toxic. This review mainly focuses on CS’s properties and several approaches to synthesizing natural polymer-based superabsorbent products, such as sanitary pads and diapers. It also briefly discusses the diversified applications of CS as a biopolymer in the cosmetic, medical, food, and textile industries. In addition, this study implies using CS as a superabsorbent biopolymer in the manufacturing and producing sanitary products for women and children. Due to the excellent water retention capacity, swelling ability, and anti-microbial activity exhibited by CS can be considered a potential candidate for producing superabsorbent biopolymers.
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9
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Hedar M, Intisar A, Hussain T, Hussain N, Bilal M. Challenges and Issues in Biopolymer Applications. HANDBOOK OF BIOPOLYMERS 2023:1497-1511. [DOI: 10.1007/978-981-19-0710-4_55] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2025]
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Synthesis and Characterization of Novel Patchouli Essential Oil Loaded Starch-Based Hydrogel. Gels 2022; 8:gels8090536. [PMID: 36135248 PMCID: PMC9498342 DOI: 10.3390/gels8090536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Revised: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Starch hydrogels are highly available, biocompatible and biodegradable materials that have promising applications in medical and pharmaceutical industries. However, their applications are very limited due to their poor mechanical properties and fragility. Here, we investigated, for the first time, conventional corn and waxy corn starch-based hydrogels for loading patchouli essential oil. The essential oil extracted by supercritical carbon dioxide with a yield reached 8.37 ± 1.2 wt.% (wet sample) at 80 °C temperature and 10 MPa pressure. Patchouli essential oil exhibited a 23 to 28 mm zone of inhibition against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Waxy starch hydrogels had better properties in term of viscosity, water evaporation stability and the delivery of essential oil than conventional starch hydrogels. The viscosity and spreadability of a 6% waxy starch sample were 15,016 ± 59 cP and 4.02 ± 0.34 g·cm/s, respectively, compared with those of conventional starch hydrogel (13,008 ± 29 cP and 4.59 ± 0.88 g·cm/s). Waxy starch-based hydrogels also provided slower in vitro biodegradation behavior and sustained release of essential oil compared with conventional starch hydrogels. All the samples were biocompatible and non-cytotoxic to fibroblast cells; the addition of patchouli essential oil enhances the proliferation of the cells. The enhanced viscosity, good antibacterial and improved biocompatibility results of prepared hydrogels confirm their suitability for wound healing applications.
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Abdul Khalil HPS, Yahya EB, Tajarudin HA, Balakrishnan V, Nasution H. Insights into the Role of Biopolymer-Based Xerogels in Biomedical Applications. Gels 2022; 8:334. [PMID: 35735678 PMCID: PMC9222565 DOI: 10.3390/gels8060334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Revised: 05/21/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Xerogels are advanced, functional, porous materials consisting of ambient, dried, cross-linked polymeric networks. They possess characteristics such as high porosity, great surface area, and an affordable preparation route; they can be prepared from several organic and inorganic precursors for numerous applications. Owing to their desired properties, these materials were found to be suitable for several medical and biomedical applications; the high drug-loading capacity of xerogels and their ability to maintain sustained drug release make them highly desirable for drug delivery applications. As biopolymers and chemical-free materials, they have been also utilized in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine due to their high biocompatibility, non-immunogenicity, and non-cytotoxicity. Biopolymers have the ability to interact, cross-link, and/or trap several active agents, such as antibiotic or natural antimicrobial substances, which is useful in wound dressing and healing applications, and they can also be used to trap antibodies, enzymes, and cells for biosensing and monitoring applications. This review presents, for the first time, an introduction to biopolymeric xerogels, their fabrication approach, and their properties. We present the biological properties that make these materials suitable for many biomedical applications and discuss the most recent works regarding their applications, including drug delivery, wound healing and dressing, tissue scaffolding, and biosensing.
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Affiliation(s)
- H. P. S. Abdul Khalil
- School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia; (E.B.Y.); (H.A.T.)
- Cluster of Green Biopolymer, Coatings and Packaging, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia
| | - Esam Bashir Yahya
- School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia; (E.B.Y.); (H.A.T.)
- Cluster of Green Biopolymer, Coatings and Packaging, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia
| | - Husnul Azan Tajarudin
- School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia; (E.B.Y.); (H.A.T.)
| | - Venugopal Balakrishnan
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia;
| | - Halimatuddahliana Nasution
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Sumatera Utara, Medan 20155, Indonesia;
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12
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Islam MS, Sharif A, Kwan N, Tam KC. Bile Acid Sequestrants for Hypercholesterolemia Treatment Using Sustainable Biopolymers: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives. Mol Pharm 2022; 19:1248-1272. [PMID: 35333534 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.2c00007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Bile acids, the endogenous steroid nucleus containing signaling molecules, are responsible for the regulation of multiple metabolic processes, including lipoprotein and glucose metabolism to maintain homeostasis. Within our body, they are directly produced from their immediate precursors, cholesterol C (low-density lipoprotein C, LDL-C), through the enzymatic catabolic process mediated by 7-α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1). Bile acid sequestrants (BASs) or amphiphilic resins that are nonabsorbable to the human body (being complex high molecular weight polymers/electrolytes) are one of the classes of drugs used to treat hypercholesterolemia (a high plasma cholesterol level) or dyslipidemia (lipid abnormalities in the body); thus, they have been used clinically for more than 50 years with strong safety profiles as demonstrated by the Lipid Research Council-Cardiovascular Primary Prevention Trial (LRC-CPPT). They reduce plasma LDL-C and can slightly increase high-density lipoprotein C (HDL-C) levels, whereas many of the recent clinical studies have demonstrated that they can reduce glucose levels in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). However, due to higher daily dosage requirements, lower efficacy in LDL-C reduction, and concomitant drug malabsorption, research to develop an "ideal" BAS from sustainable or natural sources with better LDL-C lowering efficacy and glucose regulations and lower side effects is being pursued. This Review discusses some recent developments and their corresponding efficacies as bile removal or LDL-C reduction of natural biopolymer (polysaccharide)-based compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Shahidul Islam
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Anjiya Sharif
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Nathania Kwan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Kam C Tam
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
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Iskandar MA, Yahya EB, Abdul Khalil HPS, Rahman AA, Ismail MA. Recent Progress in Modification Strategies of Nanocellulose-Based Aerogels for Oil Absorption Application. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14050849. [PMID: 35267674 PMCID: PMC8912783 DOI: 10.3390/polym14050849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Oil spills and oily wastewater have become a major environmental problem in recent years, directly impacting the environment and biodiversity. Several techniques have been developed to solve this problem, including biological degradation, chemicals, controlled burning, physical absorption and membrane separation. Recently, biopolymeric aerogels have been proposed as a green solution for this problem, and they possess superior selective oil absorption capacity compared with other approaches. Several modification strategies have been applied to nanocellulose-based aerogel to enhance its poor hydrophobicity, increase its oil absorption capacity, improve its selectivity of oils and make it a compressible and elastic magnetically responsive aerogel, which will ease its recovery after use. This review presents an introduction to nanocellulose-based aerogel and its fabrication approaches. Different applications of nanocellulose aerogel in environmental, medical and industrial fields are presented. Different strategies for the modification of nanocellulose-based aerogel are critically discussed in this review, presenting the most recent works in terms of enhancing the aerogel performance in oil absorption in addition to the potential of these materials in near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. A. Iskandar
- School of Physics, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia; (M.A.I.); (A.A.R.)
| | - Esam Bashir Yahya
- School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia;
| | - H. P. S. Abdul Khalil
- School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia;
- Correspondence:
| | - A. A. Rahman
- School of Physics, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia; (M.A.I.); (A.A.R.)
| | - M. A. Ismail
- Teraju Saga Sdn. Bhd. MP813, Jalan Melaka Perdana 2, Taman Melaka Perdana, Alor Gajah, Melaka 78000, Malaysia;
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14
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Mondal SK, Wu C, Nwadire FC, Rownaghi A, Kumar A, Adewuyi Y, Okoronkwo MU. Examining the Effect of a Chitosan Biopolymer on Alkali-Activated Inorganic Material for Aqueous Pb(II) and Zn(II) Sorption. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2022; 38:903-913. [PMID: 35025522 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.1c01829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Biopolymers and alkali-activated materials have attracted a great deal of attention as adsorbents for the removal of heavy metal contaminants from aqueous solutions. Both materials are sustainable and feature unique properties, but biopolymers are relatively more expensive or difficult to prepare and exhibit low mechanical and surface properties, a narrow pH range, and thermal stability. In this study, hybrid adsorbents were prepared from both types of material, by alkali activation of low-cost fly ash precursors accompanied by incorporation of 0-2%mass chitosan biopolymer. Two types of alkaline activating solutions, NaOH and Na2SiO3, were employed to generate two sets of hybrid adsorbents with varying chitosan contents. The effect of the chitosan dosage on the aqueous Pb(II) and Zn(II) sorption efficiency was also investigated. The adsorbents exhibited 98-100% removal efficiencies for both metals, but the sorption of Zn(II) was generally higher than that of Pb(II). The addition of 0.1-2.0%mass chitosan resulted in very little improvement in the overall efficiency of the adsorbents. In contrast, 0.05%mass chitosan led to a decrease in the sorption efficiency; this was linked to the decrease in the adsorbents' ζ potential. The Na2SiO3-activated materials featured larger BET surface areas and better overall sorption performance, while the NaOH-activated materials showed the worst Pb(II) sorption performance and hence more noticeable improvement upon addition of chitosan. Mechanistic investigation shows that the sorption process follows second-order kinetics and is a chemisorption-driven process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sukanta K Mondal
- Sustainable Materials Laboratory (SusMatLab), Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri 65409, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri 65409, United States
| | - Chenglin Wu
- Department of Civil, Architectural & Environmental Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri 65409, United States
| | - Felix C Nwadire
- Department of Chemistry, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, P.M.B. 7267, Umuahia, Abia, Nigeria
| | - Ali Rownaghi
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri 65409, United States
| | - Aditya Kumar
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri 65409, United States
| | - Yusuf Adewuyi
- Department of Chemical, Biological and Bioengineering, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, North Carolina 27411, United States
| | - Monday U Okoronkwo
- Sustainable Materials Laboratory (SusMatLab), Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri 65409, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri 65409, United States
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15
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Rizal S, Yahya EB, Abdul Khalil HPS, Abdullah CK, Marwan M, Ikramullah I, Muksin U. Preparation and Characterization of Nanocellulose/Chitosan Aerogel Scaffolds Using Chemical-Free Approach. Gels 2021; 7:gels7040246. [PMID: 34940306 PMCID: PMC8701007 DOI: 10.3390/gels7040246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Revised: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 11/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Biopolymer-based aerogels are open three-dimensional porous materials that are characterized by outstanding properties, such as a low density, high porosity and high surface area, in addition to their biocompatibility and non-cytotoxicity. Here we fabricated pure and binary blended aerogels from cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) and chitosan (CS), using a chemical-free approach that consists of high-pressure homogenization and freeze-drying. The prepared aerogels showed a different porosity and density, depending on the material and mixing ratio. The porosity and density of the aerogels ranged from 99.1 to 90.8% and from 0.0081 to 0.141 g/cm3, respectively. Pure CNFs aerogel had the highest porosity and lightest density, but it showed poor mechanical properties and a high water absorption capacity. Mixing CS with CNFs significantly enhance the mechanical properties and reduce its water uptake. The two investigated ratios of aerogel blends had superior mechanical and thermal properties over the single-material aerogels, in addition to reduced water uptake and 2-log antibacterial activity. This green fabrication and chemical-free approach could have great potential in the preparation of biopolymeric scaffolds for different biomedical applications, such as tissue-engineering scaffolds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samsul Rizal
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia;
- Correspondence: (S.R.); (E.B.Y.); (A.K.H.P.S.)
| | - Esam Bashir Yahya
- School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia;
- Correspondence: (S.R.); (E.B.Y.); (A.K.H.P.S.)
| | - H. P. S. Abdul Khalil
- School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia;
- Correspondence: (S.R.); (E.B.Y.); (A.K.H.P.S.)
| | - C. K. Abdullah
- School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia;
| | - Marwan Marwan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia;
| | - Ikramullah Ikramullah
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia;
| | - Umar Muksin
- Department of Physics, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia;
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16
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Lewandowska K, Szulc M. Characterisation of Hyaluronic Acid Blends Modified by Poly( N-Vinylpyrrolidone). Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26175233. [PMID: 34500667 PMCID: PMC8433758 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26175233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The viscosity behaviour and physical properties of blends containing hyaluronic acid (HA) and poly(N-vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP) were studied by the viscometric technique, steady shear tests, tensile tests and infrared spectroscopy. Viscometric and rheological measurements were carried out using blends of HA/PVP with different HA weight fractions (0, 0.2, 0.5, 0.8 and 1). The polymer films and HA/PVP blend films were prepared using the solution casting method. The study of HA blends by viscometry showed that HA/PVP was miscible with the exception of the blend with high HA content. HA and its blends showed a shear-thinning flow behaviour. The non-Newtonian indices (n) of HA/PVP blends were calculated by the Ostwald-de Waele equation, indicating a shear-thinning effect in which pseudoplasticity increased with increasing HA contents. Mechanical properties, such as tensile strength and elongation at the break, were higher for HA/PVP films with wHA = 0.5 compared to those with higher HA contents. The elongation at the break of HA/PVP blend films displayed a pronounced increase compared to HA films. Moreover, infrared analysis confirmed the existence of interactions between HA and PVP. The blending of HA with PVP generated films with elasticity and better properties than homopolymer films.
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17
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Gheorghita R, Anchidin-Norocel L, Filip R, Dimian M, Covasa M. Applications of Biopolymers for Drugs and Probiotics Delivery. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:2729. [PMID: 34451268 PMCID: PMC8399127 DOI: 10.3390/polym13162729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Research regarding the use of biopolymers has been of great interest to scientists, the medical community, and the industry especially in recent years. Initially used for food applications, the special properties extended their use to the pharmaceutical and medical industries. The practical applications of natural drug encapsulation materials have emerged as a result of the benefits of the use of biopolymers as edible coatings and films in the food industry. This review highlights the use of polysaccharides in the pharmaceutical industries and as encapsulation materials for controlled drug delivery systems including probiotics, focusing on their development, various applications, and benefits. The paper provides evidence in support of research studying the use of biopolymers in the development of new drug delivery systems, explores the challenges and limitations in integrating polymer-derived materials with product delivery optimization, and examines the host biological/metabolic parameters that can be used in the development of new applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roxana Gheorghita
- Department of Health and Human Development, Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, 720229 Suceava, Romania; (R.G.); (L.A.-N.)
- Integrated Center for Research, Development and Innovation in Advanced Materials, Nanotechnologies, and Distributed Systems for Fabrication and Control, Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, 720229 Suceava, Romania;
| | - Liliana Anchidin-Norocel
- Department of Health and Human Development, Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, 720229 Suceava, Romania; (R.G.); (L.A.-N.)
| | - Roxana Filip
- Hipocrat Clinical Laboratory, 720003 Suceava, Romania;
| | - Mihai Dimian
- Integrated Center for Research, Development and Innovation in Advanced Materials, Nanotechnologies, and Distributed Systems for Fabrication and Control, Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, 720229 Suceava, Romania;
- Department of Computers, Electronics and Automation, Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, 720229 Suceava, Romania
| | - Mihai Covasa
- Department of Health and Human Development, Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, 720229 Suceava, Romania; (R.G.); (L.A.-N.)
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA
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18
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Yahya EB, Amirul AA, H.P.S. AK, Olaiya NG, Iqbal MO, Jummaat F, A.K. AS, Adnan AS. Insights into the Role of Biopolymer Aerogel Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:1612. [PMID: 34067569 PMCID: PMC8156123 DOI: 10.3390/polym13101612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The global transplantation market size was valued at USD 8.4 billion in 2020 and is expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate of 11.5% over the forecast period. The increasing demand for tissue transplantation has inspired researchers to find alternative approaches for making artificial tissues and organs function. The unique physicochemical and biological properties of biopolymers and the attractive structural characteristics of aerogels such as extremely high porosity, ultra low-density, and high surface area make combining these materials of great interest in tissue scaffolding and regenerative medicine applications. Numerous biopolymer aerogel scaffolds have been used to regenerate skin, cartilage, bone, and even heart valves and blood vessels by growing desired cells together with the growth factor in tissue engineering scaffolds. This review focuses on the principle of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine and the role of biopolymer aerogel scaffolds in this field, going through the properties and the desirable characteristics of biopolymers and biopolymer tissue scaffolds in tissue engineering applications. The recent advances of using biopolymer aerogel scaffolds in the regeneration of skin, cartilage, bone, and heart valves are also discussed in the present review. Finally, we highlight the main challenges of biopolymer-based scaffolds and the prospects of using these materials in regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esam Bashir Yahya
- School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia;
| | - A. A. Amirul
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia
| | - Abdul Khalil H.P.S.
- School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia;
| | - Niyi Gideon Olaiya
- Department of Industrial and Production Engineering, Federal University of Technology, PMB 704 Akure, Nigeria;
| | - Muhammad Omer Iqbal
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Glycoscience and Glycoengineering, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China;
| | - Fauziah Jummaat
- Management & Science University Medical Centre, University Drive, Off Persiaran Olahraga, Section 13, Shah Alam 40100, Malaysia; (F.J.); (A.S.A.)
| | - Atty Sofea A.K.
- Hospital Seberang Jaya, Jalan Tun Hussein Onn, Seberang Jaya, Permatang Pauh 13700, Malaysia;
| | - A. S. Adnan
- Management & Science University Medical Centre, University Drive, Off Persiaran Olahraga, Section 13, Shah Alam 40100, Malaysia; (F.J.); (A.S.A.)
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19
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Rizal S, H. P. S. AK, Oyekanmi AA, Gideon ON, Abdullah CK, Yahya EB, Alfatah T, Sabaruddin FA, Rahman AA. Cotton Wastes Functionalized Biomaterials from Micro to Nano: A Cleaner Approach for a Sustainable Environmental Application. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:1006. [PMID: 33805242 PMCID: PMC8037842 DOI: 10.3390/polym13071006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Revised: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The exponential increase in textile cotton wastes generation and the ineffective processing mechanism to mitigate its environmental impact by developing functional materials with unique properties for geotechnical applications, wastewater, packaging, and biomedical engineering have become emerging global concerns among researchers. A comprehensive study of a processed cotton fibres isolation technique and their applications are highlighted in this review. Surface modification of cotton wastes fibre increases the adsorption of dyes and heavy metals removal from wastewater. Cotton wastes fibres have demonstrated high adsorption capacity for the removal of recalcitrant pollutants in wastewater. Cotton wastes fibres have found remarkable application in slope amendments, reinforcement of expansive soils and building materials, and a proven source for isolation of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs). Several research work on the use of cotton waste for functional application rather than disposal has been done. However, no review study has discussed the potentials of cotton wastes from source (Micro-Nano) to application. This review critically analyses novel isolation techniques of CNC from cotton wastes with an in-depth study of a parameter variation effect on their yield. Different pretreatment techniques and efficiency were discussed. From the analysis, chemical pretreatment is considered the most efficient extraction of CNCs from cotton wastes. The pretreatment strategies can suffer variation in process conditions, resulting in distortion in the extracted cellulose's crystallinity. Acid hydrolysis using sulfuric acid is the most used extraction process for cotton wastes-based CNC. A combined pretreatment process, such as sonication and hydrolysis, increases the crystallinity of cotton-based CNCs. The improvement of the reinforced matrix interface of textile fibres is required for improved packaging and biomedical applications for the sustainability of cotton-based CNCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samsul Rizal
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia
| | - Abdul Khalil H. P. S.
- School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Penang 11800, Malaysia; (O.N.G.); (C.K.A.); (E.B.Y.); (T.A.); (F.A.S.)
| | - Adeleke A. Oyekanmi
- School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Penang 11800, Malaysia; (O.N.G.); (C.K.A.); (E.B.Y.); (T.A.); (F.A.S.)
| | - Olaiya N. Gideon
- School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Penang 11800, Malaysia; (O.N.G.); (C.K.A.); (E.B.Y.); (T.A.); (F.A.S.)
| | - Che K. Abdullah
- School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Penang 11800, Malaysia; (O.N.G.); (C.K.A.); (E.B.Y.); (T.A.); (F.A.S.)
| | - Esam B. Yahya
- School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Penang 11800, Malaysia; (O.N.G.); (C.K.A.); (E.B.Y.); (T.A.); (F.A.S.)
| | - Tata Alfatah
- School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Penang 11800, Malaysia; (O.N.G.); (C.K.A.); (E.B.Y.); (T.A.); (F.A.S.)
| | - Fatimah A. Sabaruddin
- School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Penang 11800, Malaysia; (O.N.G.); (C.K.A.); (E.B.Y.); (T.A.); (F.A.S.)
| | - Azhar A. Rahman
- School of Physics, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Penang 11800, Malaysia;
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