Life-course management of gestational diabetes mellitus: A narrative review

Table 5 Comparative overview of maternal and offspring risks associated with gestational diabetes mellitus

Risk domain	Maternal impact	Offspring impact
T2DM	7- to 10-fold increased risk within 10 years	Increased insulin resistance
Cardiovascular disease	A 2-fold increased risk (even without T2DM)	Early-onset CVD, hypertension
Weight trajectory	Higher postpartum weight retention	Higher adiposity and central fat distribution
Epigenetic programming	Persistent inflammation, β-cell stress	Altered methylation of insulin signaling genes
Preventive leverage	Breastfeeding, early screening	Healthy lifestyle education, pediatric monitoring

This table summarizes the long-term health risks faced by women with a history of gestational diabetes mellitus and their offspring, highlighting key domains such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, obesity trajectories, epigenetic programming, and preventive opportunities. T2DM: Type 2 diabetes mellitus; CVD: Cardiovascular disease.