Challenges and solutions in the treatment of spinal disorders in patients with skeletal dysplasia: A comprehensive review

Table 3 Summary of surgical management of spinal disorders in various skeletal dysplasias

Skeletal dysplasia (incidence)	Common spinal disorders	Nonsurgical management	Surgical management
Achondroplasia (1:20000-1:30000)	Foramen magnum stenosis neurological complications	Regular monitoring with magnetic resonance imaging and X-rays. Physical therapy for posture and strength. Pain management. Ergonomic modifications	Decompression surgery if severe compression or neurological symptoms occur
Hypochondroplasia (1:15000-1:40000)	Spinal stenosis: Degenerative disc disease	Physical therapy. Pain management. Ergonomic modifications. Regular spinal assessments	Surgical intervention for severe stenosis or radiculopathy. Decompression surgery
Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita (1:100000)	AAI, OH, scoliosis	Physical therapy. Bracing for scoliosis. Regular monitoring. Pain management. Adaptive mobility devices	Decompression (C1 laminectomy) and OC fusion. Deformity correction
Kniest dysplasia (1:1000000)	AAI, OH, scoliosis	Physical therapy. Bracing for scoliosis. Regular monitoring. Pain management. Adaptive mobility devices	Decompression (C1 laminectomy) and OC fusion. Deformity correction
Diastrophic dysplasia (1:500000)	Cervical kyphosis, kyphoscoliosis	Early orthotic management. Regular monitoring for curve progression. Physical therapy. Pain management	Anterior/posterior correction for severe curves or progressive deformities. Spinal fusion if necessary
Mucopolysaccharidoses (all forms: 1:25000, I: 1:100000, IV: 1:200000-1:300000)	Craniovertebral junction stenosis, Thoracolumbar kyphosis, scoliosis	Regular monitoring and physical therapy. Management of symptoms and pain. Occupational therapy. Supportive care	Deformity correction. Decompression if necessary
Osteogenesis imperfecta (all forms: 1:10000-1:20000)	Spinal deformities (kyphosis, scoliosis)	Regular spinal evaluations. Bracing and physical therapy. Bisphosphonates for bone strength. Pain management	Surgery for severe curves or spinal instability. Spinal fusion in progressive cases

AAI: Atlantoaxial instability; OC: Occipitocervical; OH: Odontoid hypoplasia.