Interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α in osteoimmunology: Aging, and anticytokine therapies

Figure 1 Schematic depiction of the crosstalk between cytokines and musculoskeletal disorders. Created by Biorender.com. Central cytokine hub connects to panels showing synovitis, cartilage destruction, periodontal bone loss, and combined bone-muscle wasting. Arrows emphasize shared osteoimmunological pathways driving systemic bone fragility, musculoskeletal frailty, and chronic inflammatory disease across the lifespan. IL-6: Interleukin-6; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-α; SASP: Senescence-associated secretory phenotype; OPG: Osteoprotegerin; RANKL: Receptor activator of nuclear factor (NF)-κB ligand; RANK: Receptor activator of NF-κB.