Proneurogenic and microglial modulatory properties of botulinum neurotoxin in the hippocampus of aging experimental mice

Figure 6 Pro-neurogenic effect of botulinum neurotoxin in the hippocampus. Aging has been associated with a gradual increase in microglial activation, elevated levels of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and nitric oxide (NO), reduced neurogenesis, and progressive memory decline. Botulinum neurotoxin, a well-known anti-aging and analgesic agent, has also demonstrated pro-cognitive and anxiolytic properties. These effects may be attributed to its ability to suppress COX-2 and NO levels by deactivating microglia, thereby promoting hippocampal neurogenesis and potentially counteracting age-related cognitive decline. CA: Cornu Ammonis; DG: Dentate gyrus; NO: Nitric oxide; BoNT: Botulinum neurotoxin; COX-2: Cyclooxygenase-2. (This image has been adopted and modified from Kandasamy[30]).