Unleashing children’s potential: An evidence-based narrative review of strategies to enhance cognitive function and intelligence in school-age children

Table 8 Stress, biological pathways, cognitive impact, and resilience-building interventions in children

Stressor	Biological mechanism	Cognitive impact	Resilience intervention
Chronic psychosocial stress (toxic stress)	Sustained hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-axis activation; cortisol dysregulation; impaired glucocorticoid receptor signaling	Reduced executive function, impaired attention regulation, diminished working memory	Trauma-informed care; caregiver buffering; stable routines
Early life adversity (poverty, neglect, family instability)	Elevated allostatic load; altered prefrontal-limbic connectivity; reduced synaptic plasticity	Slower processing speed; impaired cognitive flexibility; academic underachievement	Parenting support programs; early childhood enrichment; social services integration
Exposure to violence or unsafe environments	Hyperactivation of amygdala; disrupted fronto-limbic circuitry; threat-biased attentional networks	Increased distractibility; impaired inhibitory control; emotional dysregulation	Safe school initiatives; mentoring programs; community-based interventions
Chronic academic pressure and performance stress	Sympathetic overactivation; reduced prefrontal efficiency; increased cognitive load	Decreased working memory capacity; attentional fatigue; reduced problem-solving efficiency	Mindfulness-based stress reduction; workload restructuring; metacognitive training
Sleep disruption secondary to stress	Altered cortisol circadian rhythm; impaired hippocampal memory consolidation	Learning deficits, impaired memory retention, and reduced executive control	Sleep hygiene education, consistent bedtime routines, and stress-management interventions
Parental mental health stress	Indirect hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-axis dysregulation via reduced caregiver responsiveness	Language delays, reduced executive scaffolding, and socio-cognitive difficulties	Parental mental health support; responsive caregiving interventions
Social deprivation or peer rejection	Dysregulated oxytocin-cortisol interaction; altered social brain networks	Impaired social cognition; reduced motivation and attention	Peer-support programs; social-emotional learning curricula