Unleashing children’s potential: An evidence-based narrative review of strategies to enhance cognitive function and intelligence in school-age children

Table 2 Interaction of biological, environmental, and educational determinants in cognitive development: Mechanisms and targeted interventions

Determinant domain	Specific determinants	Primary neurocognitive mechanisms	Cognitive domains affected	Clinical/educational interventions
Biological	Nutrition (iron, iodine, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin D)	Myelination, neurotransmitter synthesis, and synaptic efficiency	Processing speed, working memory, and attention	Nutritional screening and supplementation; school meal optimization; pediatric dietary counseling
	Sleep quantity and quality	Memory consolidation, synaptic homeostasis, executive regulation	Learning, attention, EF	Sleep hygiene education, delayed school starting times, and treatment of sleep disorders
	Physical activity and fitness	Neurotrophic signaling (brain-derived neurotrophic factors), cerebral blood flow, and network connectivity	EF, processing speed	Structured physical education; aerobic exercise programs; movement-integrated learning
	Stress physiology (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-axis activation)	Cortisol-mediated disruption of prefrontal and hippocampal function	Attention, emotional regulation, and working memory	Trauma-informed care, stress-reduction programs, and family psychosocial support
Environmental	Parental engagement and home stimulation	Language exposure, experience-dependent plasticity	Verbal intelligence, memory, and metacognition	Parent-training programs; guided home learning activities; literacy promotion
	Socioeconomic context	Chronic stress exposure; access to enrichment	Global cognitive function, academic achievement	Community-based support programs; early academic enrichment; policy-level interventions
	Emotional security and attachment	Regulation of affective-cognitive networks	EF, social cognition	Parenting interventions; school counseling services
Educational	Instructional quality and pedagogy	Executive scaffolding; cognitive load optimization	Fluid intelligence, problem-solving	Executive-function-based curricula; differentiated instruction
	Classroom environment	Attention regulation; motivation and engagement	Attention, processing speed	Reduced class size; structured classroom routines; teacher training
	Cognitive training and enrichment	Network strengthening and cognitive reserve accumulation	Working memory, reasoning	Cognitive training programs; enrichment-based curricula
	Technology-assisted learning	Multimodal engagement; adaptive feedback	Processing speed, metacognition	Digital learning platforms; artificial intelligence-assisted personalized instruction
Integrated/multimodal	Combined health, environmental, and educational inputs	Synergistic enhancement of plasticity and reserve	Broad cognitive outcomes	Multidisciplinary intervention models; school-clinic partnerships

EF: Executive function.