Emerging biomarkers for gestational diabetes mellitus and related pediatric outcomes

Table 9 Summarized details of emerging metabolic biomarkers for diagnosis and early prediction of gestational diabetes mellitus and associated outcomes

Biomarker	Amino acid/metabolic pathway	Potential role	Ref.
Metabolic biomarkers
Amino acid metabolites
Branched-chain amino acids	Leucine, isoleucine, valine	Associated with insulin resistance and GDM	Li et al[134], Ademolu[135]
Tryptophan	Tryptophan	Involved in various metabolic processes and altered tryptophan metabolism have been linked to insulin resistance and GDM	Zhou et al[136], Özdemir et al[137]
Phenylalanine	Phenylalanine	Elevated phenylalanine levels have been linked to insulin resistance and GDM	Yang et al[138]
Histidine	Histidine	Modified histidine concentrations have been associated with insulin resistance and GDM	Zhou et al[136], Yang et al[138]
Glutamic acid	Glutamic acid	Potential biomarker for GDM diagnosis	Yang et al[138], Kong et al[139]
N-Acetylproline	Proline	Altered N-Acetylproline levels have been linked to insulin resistance and GDM	Aleidi et al[140]
Alanine	Alanine	Potential biomarker for GDM diagnosis	Zhou et al[141], Spanou et al[142]
Tyrosine	Tyrosine	Potential biomarker for GDM prediction	Yang et al[138], Spanou et al[142]
Arginine	Arginine	Employed in glucose metabolism and GDM	Spanou et al[142], Zhan et al[143]
Glycine	Glycine	Associated with insulin sensitivity and GDM	Yang et al[138], Zhou et al[141], Spanou et al[142]
Lipid metabolites
Triacylglycerols	Insulin resistance-related lipid metabolites	Potential biomarkers for GDM prediction	Zhang et al[144], Balachandiran et al[145]
Inositol phosphate	Insulin resistance and glucose metabolism	Insulin resistance and glucose intolerance in GDM may be exacerbated by altered IP3 signaling	Pillai et al[146], Mazzera et al[147]
Glycerolipid	GDM and insulin resistance may exacerbate by elevated triacylglycerols	Predictive biomarker for GDM risk	Zhan et al[143], Zhang et al[144]
Omega-6-fatty acid	Changes in amino acid levels might be a factor in GDM and insulin resistance	Predictive biomarker for GDM risk	Egalini et al[132], Hosseinkhani et al[148]
Phosphatidylcholines	Phospholipids involved in glucose metabolism	Potential biomarkers for GDM diagnosis	Zhou et al[141], Wang et al[149]
Sphingomyelins	Sphingolipids associated with insulin resistance	Potential biomarkers for GDM prediction	Fakhr et al[150], Pinto et al[151]
Lysophosphatidylcholines	Phospholipid metabolites associated with GDM	Potential biomarkers for GDM diagnosis	Zhou et al[141], Zhan et al[143], Hung et al[152]
Ceramides	Sphingolipids associated with insulin resistance	Potential biomarkers for GDM prediction	Mustaniemi et al[153], Lantzanaki et al[154]
Free fatty acids	Lipid metabolites associated with insulin resistance	Potential biomarkers for GDM prediction	Kong et al[139], Hosseinkhani et al[148]
Acylcarnitines	Fatty acid metabolites associated with insulin resistance	Potential biomarkers for GDM prediction	Zhan et al[143], Pinto et al[151]
Glycolytic intermediates
1,5-Anhydroglucitol	Glycolysis	Marker of glycemic control and GDM diagnosis	Xu et al[155], Lin et al[156]
Pyruvate	Glycolysis	Potential biomarker for GDM diagnosis	Zhou et al[141], Bhushan et al[157]
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate	Glycolysis	Potential biomarker for GDM prediction	Saucedo et al[61]
Lactate	Glycolysis	Associated with insulin resistance and GDM	Zhou et al[141]
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate	Glycolysis	Potential biomarker for GDM prediction	Wei et al[158], Wang et al[159]
Glucose-6-phosphate	Glycolysis	Potential biomarker for GDM diagnosis	Wei et al[158]
Phosphoenolpyruvate	Glycolysis	Potential biomarker for GDM prediction	Lai et al[160], Xu et al[161]

GDM: Gestational diabetes mellitus.