Emerging biomarkers for gestational diabetes mellitus and related pediatric outcomes

Table 5 Pediatric outcomes associated with gestational diabetes mellitus can have short-term and long-term effects on the child's health

Short-term outcomes		Ref.
Macrosomia	Excessive birth weight, which can increase the risk of complications during delivery	Gautam et al[4], Ornoy et al[67], Chen et al[71]
Neonatal hypoglycemia	Low blood sugar in newborns, which can be a complication of GDM	Gautam et al[4], Nakshine and Jogdand[69], Corcillo et al[72]
Respiratory distress syndrome	Difficulty breathing in newborns, which can be associated with GDM	Gautam et al[4], Chulkov et al[73], Cahen-Peretz et al[74]
Birth injuries	Elevated risk of birth injuries, including shoulder dystocia, linked to macrosomia	Gautam et al[4], Nakshine and Jogdand[69], Chen et al[71]
Long-term outcomes
Obesity	Children of mothers with GDM are at an increased risk of having obese in later life	Gautam et al[4], Ornoy et al[67], Nakshine and Jogdand[69], Semnani-Azad et al[70], Mantzorou et al[75]
T2DM	Children of mothers with GDM are at an elevated risk of getting T2DM in later life	Gautam et al[4], Nakshine and Jogdand[69], Semnani-Azad et al[70], Corcillo et al[72]
Metabolic syndrome	Children of mothers with GDM may have an elevated risk of developing metabolic syndrome, a group of disorders that enhance the risk of cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular accidents, and T2DM	Gautam et al[4], Nakshine and Jogdand[69], Semnani-Azad et al[70], Corcillo et al[72], Pathirana et al[76]
Neurodevelopmental outcomes	Certain studies indicate that children delivered to mothers with GDM may have an elevated risk of neurodevelopmental delays or abnormalities	Ornoy et al[67], Hirata et al[77], Kim et al[78]

GDM: Gestational diabetes mellitus; T2DM: Type 2 diabetes mellitus.