Emerging biomarkers for gestational diabetes mellitus and related pediatric outcomes

Table 3 Summarized details of traditional biomarkers for gestational diabetes mellitus prediction

Biomarker	Description	Predictive value	Sensitivity	Specificity	Notes	Ref.
Family history of diabetes	Diabetes prevalence among first-degree relatives	High risk	50%-70%	70%-80%	Important risk factor for GDM	Monod et al[40], Basil et al[41]
Body mass index ≥ 30	Obesity	Moderate risk	50%-70%	70%-80%	Increased risk of GDM with obesity	Teshome et al[31], Chen et al[42], Antoniou et al[43]
Age ≥ 35 years	Advanced maternal age	Moderate risk	40%-60%	60%-70%	Increased risk of GDM with advancing age	Deng et al[44], Guarga Montori et al[45], Machado-Gédéon et al[46]
Previous history of GDM	Previous diagnosis of GDM in a prior pregnancy	High risk	70%-90%	80%-90%	Strong predictor of GDM in subsequent pregnancies	Liang et al[47], Kouhkan et al[48]
Fasting plasma glucose in early pregnancy	Measures glucose levels in early pregnancy	High risk	70%-80%	80%-90%	May predict GDM development	Wang et al[49], Tong et al[50]
Triglycerides	Measures triglyceride levels	Moderate risk	50%-60%	70%-80%	May predict GDM development	Liang et al[47], Shi et al[51]
Adiponectin	Measures adiponectin levels, an adipokine involved in glucose regulation	Moderate risk	60%-70%	70%-80%	May predict GDM development	Mihai et al[52], Muntean et al[53], Moyce Gruber et al[54], Moyce Gruber et al[55]
Leptin	Measures leptin levels, an adipokine involved in energy balance	Moderate risk	50%-60%	70%-80%	May predict GDM development	Chico-Barba et al[56]
HCG	Measures elevated HCG levels	Moderate risk	50%-60%	70%-80%	May predict GDM development	Mandić-Marković et al[26], Kantomaa et al[57]
IGF-1	Measures IGF-1 levels, which may be associated with insulin resistance	Moderate risk	50%-60%	70%-80%	May predict GDM development	Tumminia et al[58], Alekseenkova et al[59]
Resistin	Measures resistin levels, which may be associated with insulin resistance	Moderate risk	50%-60%	70%-80%	May predict GDM development	Ferdousi et al[60], Saucedo et al[61]

GDM: Gestational diabetes mellitus; HCG: Human chorionic gonadotropin; IGF-1: Insulin growth factor-1.