Emerging biomarkers for gestational diabetes mellitus and related pediatric outcomes

Table 2 Summarized details of traditional biomarkers for diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus associated pediatric outcomes

Biomarker	Pediatric outcome	Description	Diagnostic criteria	Sensitivity	Specificity	Notes	Ref.
Traditional biomarkers for pediatric outcomes in GDM
Birth weight	Macrosomia	Measures fetal growth	> 4000 g	70%-80%	80%-90%	Linked with an increased risk of obesity and metabolic diseases	Huhn et al[23], Zheng et al[27], Hu[28], Bernea et al[29]
Ponderal index	Fetal growth restriction	Measures fetal growth	< 2.2 or > 2.8	60%-70%	70%-80%	May indicate fetal growth restriction or macrosomia	Powel et al[30], Teshome et al[31], Mirabelli et al[32]
Cord blood glucose	Neonatal hypoglycemia	Measures glucose levels at birth	< 40 mg/dL (2.2 mmol/L)	80%-90%	90%-95%	Associated with increased risk of neonatal hypoglycemia	Wang et al[33], Shao et al[34]
Neonatal blood glucose	Neonatal hypoglycemia	Measures glucose levels after birth	< 40 mg/dL (2.2 mmol/L)	80%-90%	90%-95%	May require monitoring and treatment	Kariniemi et al[35], García-Moreno et al[36]
Anthropometric measures	Childhood obesity	Measures body mass index	> 95th percentile	70%-80%	80%-90%	Linked with an increased risk of obesity and metabolic diseases	Huang et al[37], Castaneda et al[38]

GDM: Gestational diabetes mellitus.