Minimally invasive spine surgery with endoscopy, navigation, robotics, and artificial intelligence: Clinical evidence and future directions

Table 4 Comparison between minimally invasive spine surgery and traditional open surgery

Parameter	MISS	Traditional open surgery
Intraoperative blood loss	< 50-100 mL; minimal soft-tissue disruption	200-500 mL; requires extensive soft-tissue dissection
Length of hospital stay	Average 2-4 days	Average 7-10 days
Pain relief (VAS)	VAS score reduced by 50%-60% at 1 week postoperatively; further improvement by 2 weeks	Pain relief typically observed around 4 weeks postoperatively; recovery is comparatively slower
Complication rate	Overall complication rate < 5%; mainly minor infections and mild transient neurological deficits	Complication rate 10%-20%; includes bleeding, infection, and neurological injury
Functional recovery (ODI)	ODI improved by 30%-40% at 3 months; marked improvement by 6 months	ODI gradually improves, reaching approximately 30%-35% improvement at 6 months

MISS: Minimally invasive spine surgery; VAS: Visual analogue scale; ODI: Oswestry Disability Index.