Effectiveness of motor imagery in postoperative outcomes after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction

Table 3 Outcome evaluations between intervention and placebo groups

Ref.	Measured outcomes	Results
Brewer et al[6], 2022	Pain (NRS)	Lower postoperative pain (P = 0.02), lower kinesiophobia (P = 0.77), improved postoperative symptoms (P = 0.002) in cases than controls
	Kinesiophobia (TSK)	No significant difference in flexion ROM (P = 0.99), extension ROM (P = 0.18), and knee laxity (P = 0.09) between groups
	Subjective symptoms (KOS-SAS)
	Knee laxity (KT1000)
	ROM (flex and ext)
Rhim et al[8], 2020	Kinesiophobia (TSK)	No significant difference in self-efficacy (P = 0.808), return to sport (P = 0.574), kinesiophobia (P = 0.888), and KOOS subscales (P = 0.236 to 0.916) between groups
	Return to sport (ACL-RSI)
	Self-efficacy (K-SES)
	Functional status (KOOS)
Levinger et al[7], 2017	Self-efficacy (K-SES)	No significant difference in KOOS subscales (P = 0.07-0.76), self-efficacy subscales (P = 0.42 and 0.71), kinesiophobia (P = 0.46), fear of activity (P = 0.96) between groups
	Functional status (KOOS)
	Kinesiophobia (TSK)
	FABQ
Zaffagnini et al[9], 2013	QOL (mental and physical SF-36)	Improved subjective IKDC (P = 0.047), TKS (P = 0.0141) and time to crutches discharge (P = 0.0012). No significant difference in Tegner score, and SF-36 mental and physical status between groups
	Kinesiophobia (TSK)
	Functional (subjective and objective IKDC, Tegner)
	Crutches use time
Lebon et al[4], 2012	Isometric activation of the medial musculature (EMG during maximum knee extension)	Greater postoperative musculature activity in cases than controls (P = 0.02). No significant difference in postoperative pain, ROM, effusion reduction, thigh circumference, LEFS score (P > 0.05) between groups
	Pain (VAS score)
	Ability to perform daily activities with lower extremity injury using the LEFS
	Magnitude of surgical effusion and atrophy by the circumference of the knee above the kneecap and circumference of the thigh 15 cm above the kneecap
	Knee ROM (goniometry)
Cupal and Brewer[3], 2001	Pain (0-10 scale)	Improved pain in cases than placebos (P < 0.05). Reduced re-injury anxiety in cases than placebos (P < 0.05). Greater post-op knee strength in cases than placebos (P < 0.003)
	Reinjury anxiety (0-10 scale)
	Knee strength (cybex 6000)
	Isokinetic dynamometer

SF-36: Short form 36; NRS: Numeric rating scale; TSK: Tampa scale of kinesiophobia; KOS-SAS: Knee Outcomes Survey - Sports Activities Scale; ROM: Range of motion; K-SES: Knee Self Efficacy Scale; LEFS: Lower Extremity Functional Scale; KOOS: Knee Injury And Osteoarthritis Outcome Score; FABQ: Fear-Avoidance Beliefs Questionnaire; ACL-RSI: Anterior cruciate ligament-return to sport after injury; QOL: Quality of life; IKDC: International knee documentation committee; EMG: Electromyography; VAS: Visual analogue scale.