Trends and risk factors for opioid administration for non-emergent lower back pain

Table 1 Risk factors associated with emergency department opioid-based medication prescription for non-emergent low back pain

	Odds ratio	Lower 95%CI	Upper 95%CI	P value
Home income [quartile 1 (below 32793 dollars)]	Reference
Home income [quartile 2 (32794-40626 dollars)]	1.17	0.98	1.40	0.078
Home income [quartile 3 (40627-52387 dollars)]	1.35	1.13	1.61	0.001
Home income [quartile 4 (52388 dollars or more)]	1.11	0.91	1.34	0.318
Insurance
Medicaid	Reference
Medicare	1.03	0.84	1.28	0.753
Other	1.38	0.71	2.67	0.337
Private insurance	1.29	1.04	1.58	0.018
Self-pay	1.25	1.00	1.56	0.048
Workers compensation	1.10	0.72	1.70	0.660
Images obtained	1.47	1.30	1.66	< 0.001
Mean centered age	1.01	1.00	1.01	0.001
Pain-low	Reference
Pain-moderate	1.28	0.96	1.71	0.093
Pain-severe	2.14	1.63	2.81	< 0.001
Seen in ED within the last 72 hr	0.77	0.56	1.06	0.106
United States Census Region
Northeast	Reference
Midwest	2.42	1.94	3.01	< 0.001
South	2.35	1.91	2.88	< 0.001
West	2.57	1.94	3.42	< 0.001

ED: Emergency department; CI: Confidence interval.