Intestinal-related substances in obesity regulation: A comprehensive review

Table 4 Changes in gut hormones under obesity conditions

Hormone	Alteration in obesity	Response to weight loss	Ref.
GLP-1	Blunted postprandial response, reduced levels	Diet reduces fasting levels, exercise may increase postprandial levels	[55]
Peptide YY	Attenuated postprandial response, lower levels	Diet decreases fasting levels, exercise may increase in some cases	[55]
Pancreatic polypeptide	Conflicting results, often lower fasting levels	Diet increases postprandial levels, sustained for 1 year	[55]
Cholecystokinin	Reduced postprandial levels post-weight loss	Diet reduces levels, exercise has minimal effect	[55]
Leptin	Higher baseline levels in obese individuals	Decreases significantly with diet (35% with 15% weight loss), sustained reduction	[55]
Ghrelin	Lower fasting/postprandial levels, less suppression post-meal	Increases with diet (17% with 4.5% weight loss), exercise enhances post-loss levels	[55]