Advancements and challenges of ultrasound imaging in the management of thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy

Table 2 Comparison of clinical applications of ultrasound and computed tomography/magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of thyroid-associated orbitopathy

Technical dimension	Ultrasound	CT/MRI	Ref.
Spatial resolution	Moderate (can distinguish muscle/fat layers)	High (MRI provides superior muscle texture detail)	[1,76]
Hemodynamic assessment	Superior (real-time Doppler quantification)	Limited (requires contrast-enhanced scanning)	[46,77]
Disease activity staging	Based on hemodynamic + structural dynamics	MRI T2 signal indicates edema	[1]
Bony structure assessment	Cannot visualize bony walls	Essential (preoperative surgical decompression planning)	[76]
Cost and accessibility	Superior (portable equipment)	Higher (especially MRI)	[46,76]
Safety	Superior (non-ionizing, repeatable)	CT radiation risk; MRI metallic contraindications	[46,76]

CT: Computed tomography; MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging.