Relationship between the oxidative stress biomarkers and coronary heart disease: Pathogenesis to therapeutic aspects

Table 2 Oxidative stress biomarkers cause pathogenesis in coronary heart disease

Oxidative stress biomarkers	Pathogenesis in CHD	Ref.
PON1	Low PON activity reduces the ability of HDL to prevent LDL oxidation, enhancing foam cell formation and atherogenesis. A key player in the oxidation of LDL and the inhibition of coronary atherogenesis is PON1. There is a direct correlation between low serum PON1 activity and CHD	[23,26]
Nitrotyrosine	Elevated levels indicate endothelial dysfunction and vascular inflammation, contributing to plaque instability. Oxidant production and immune system activation in CAD are related because posttranslational modification of proteins through nitration acts as a neo-epitope for the elaboration of immunoglobulins in atherosclerotic plaque-filled arteries and in circulation	[30,33]
Advanced glycation end products	Explained in Figure 1
GPx	Reduced GPx activity weakens antioxidant defense, allowing oxidative damage to endothelial cells and vascular tissues	[35-37]
8-OHdG	Elevated 8-OHdG reflects oxidative DNA injury in vascular cells, which might lead to apoptosis, impaired repair, and vascular remodeling	[45]
MPO	MPO promotes LDL oxidation, endothelial dysfunction, and plaque vulnerability. MPO and MPO-derived oxidants have a role in the production of foam cells, endothelial dysfunction and death, latent matrix metalloproteinases activation, and tissue factor expression, all of which might encourage the creation of susceptible plaque	[12]
SOD	Reduced SOD activity increases superoxide accumulation, impairing nitric oxide bioavailability, causing endothelial dysfunction. Endothelial dysfunction in CAD patients is exacerbated by decreased EC-SOD activity	[63]
MDA	Elevated MDA levels reflect oxidative damage to lipids, promoting LDL modification and atherosclerosis. High blood levels of malondialdehyde show that oxygen-free radicals are being produced at a higher rate, which may contribute to atherogenesis and coronary heart disease	[69]
F2-isoprostanes	Not determined
Catalase activity	Not determined
Derivatives of reactive oxidative metabolites	The development of CAD is linked to the generation of DROM in the coronary circulation. Patients with CAD had higher DROM, which is linked to subsequent cardiovascular events	[80]

CHD: Coronary heart disease; LDL: Low-density lipoprotein; HDL: High-density lipoprotein; CAD: Coronary artery disease; DROM: Derivatives of reactive oxidative metabolites; EC-SOD: Extracellular superoxide dismutase; MDA: Malondialdehyde; GPx: Glutathione peroxidase; 8-OHdG: 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine.