Colorectal cancer therapy and nutrition: From ultra-processed consumption to metabolic reprogramming

Table 1 Evidence from animal models: Fasting and caloric restriction in colorectal cancer

Ref.	Type of intervention	Main metabolic findings	Effects on tumor/immunity
Bensalem et al[59], 2025 and Teong et al[72], 2023	Intermittent fasting (ADF: 5:2, iTRE)	blood glucose reduction, insulin reduction, ketone bodies increase, autophagy increase	Tumor growth reduction, metabolic environment less favorable to proliferation
Tsuda et al[77], 2020	Prolonged overnight fast	Synchronization of circadian rhythms, insulin sensitivity increase	Systemic inflammation reduction, cellular repair increase
Luo et al[17], 2024; Nan et al[18], 2025; and Zhong et al[83], 2023	Fasting mimicking diet (cycles)	Glucose reduction, insulin reduction, IGF-1 reduction, ketone bodies increase, expression of cellular stress genes increase	Tumor growth reduction, proliferation reduction, angiogenesis reduction, CD8+ infiltration, microbiota remodeling increase
Vidoni et al[88], 2021 and Caprara et al[89], 2025	Caloric restriction (20%-40%)	Glucose reduction, IGF-1 reduction, mTOR reduction, AMPK increase, autophagy increase	Cell proliferation reduction, apoptosis increase, genomic repair increase, inflammation reduction, stress resistance increase

ADF: Alternate-day fasting; iTRE: Intermittent time restricted eating.