Role of three-dimensional printing and artificial intelligence in the management of hepatocellular carcinoma: Challenges and opportunities

Table 1 Artificial intelligence applications in the prevention of hepatocellular carcinoma

	First author	Parameters employed	AI classifier	Sizes of the training/validation sets	Outcomes	Performance	Ref.
1	Wang J	Genetic and epigenetic biomarkers	Several	137 HCC and 431 non-HCC patients	HCC screening	0.910-0.9501,2, 0.897-0.9381,3, 75.0-91.52,4, 66.4-90.63,4, 1.0-88.82,5, 0.5-87.93,5	[47]
2	Nam JY	Laboratory results, clinicopathological parameters	DNN	424/3163 patients	HCC development in HBV cirrhosis	0.7191,2, 0.7821,3	[48]
3	Xia Q	Long non-coding RNAs	Several	38 healthy samples, 45 chronic HBV patients, 46 liver cirrhosis, and 46 HCC patients	HCC development in HBV cirrhosis	71.1-89.53,6	[49]
4	Chen S	HBV reverse transcriptase gene sequencing	RF, SVM, KNN	307 chronic HBV patients (202/105), 237 HCC patients (159/78)	HCC development in HBV cirrhosis	RF: 0.902-0.9031,2, 0.903-0.9431,3, SVM: 0.879-0.9241,2, 0.727-0.8581,3, KNN: 0.680-0.7371,2, 0.734-0.7471,3	[50]
5	Hashem S	Laboratory results, clinicopathological parameters	Several	3099 chronic HCV patients1324 HCC patients	HCC development in HCV cirrhosis	93.2-95.63,6, 0.955-0.9901,3, 86.3-91.83,4, 93.9-97.33,5	[51]
6	Audureau E	Laboratory results, clinicopathological parameters	Several	836/6687	HCC development in HCV cirrhosis	0.633-0.8071,2, 0.623-0.7151,7	[52]
7	Ioannou GN	Clinical/laboratory data extracted directly from electronic health records	DNN	48151 patients with HCV-related cirrhosis (training:test = 9:1)	HCC development in HCV cirrhosis	0.759-0.8061,3	[53]
8	Singal AG	Laboratory results, clinicopathological parameters	RF	442/10507	HCC development in cirrhosis	0.711,2, 0.641,7	[54]

¹Area under the receiver operating curve or c-index.

²Training.

³Internal validation.

⁴Sensitivity (%).

⁵Specificity (%).

⁶Accuracy (%).

⁷External validation/testing.

CCA: Cholangiocarcinoma; CNN: Convolutional neural network; CT: Computed tomography; DNN: Deep neural network; HBV: Hepatitis B virus; HCC: Hepatocellular carcinoma; HCV: Hepatitis C virus; KNN: K-nearest neighbor; RF: Random forest; SVM: Support vector machine; WSI: Whole-slide image.