Early screening for liver cancer must be performed

Table 2 Summary of hepatocellular carcinoma prediction models based on serum biomarkers

Model name	Components/equation	Ref.
GALAD	-10.08 + 0.09 × age + 1.67 × gender + 0.04 × AFP-L3% + 2.34 × log10 AFP + 1.33 × log10 DCP	Johnson et al[88], 2014
GAAP	9.134 + 0.892 × gender + 0.073 × age + 1.057 × log10 AFP + 1.015 × log10 DCP	Liu et al[89], 2020
AALP	7.245 + 0.056 × age + 0.431 × log10 AFP + 3.112 × AFP-L3 + 1.162 × log10 PIVKA-II	Ren et al[90], 2023
ASAP	-7.577 + 0.047 × age - 0.576 × gender + 0.422 × lnAFP + 1.105 × lnDCP	Sun et al[91], 2025
GAAD	Gender, age, PIVKA-II, AFP	Piratvisuth et al[92], 2023
GAADPB	0.176 + 0.162 × gender + 0.002 × age + 0.178 × log10 AFP + 0.164 × log10 DCP - 0.007 × TP - 0.002 × TB	Chen et al[93], 2023
BALAD	Bilirubin, albumin, AFP-L3, AFP, DCP	Toyoda et al[94], 2006
BALAD-2	0.02 × (AFP-2.57) + 0.012 × (AFP-L3 - 14.19) + 0.19 × (lnDCP - 1.93) + 0.17 × (Bilirubin1/2 - 4.5) - 0.09 × (albumin - 35.11)	Fox et al[95], 2014
Doylestown	1/{1 + exp[-(-10.307 + 0.097 × age + 1.645 × gender + 2.315 × log10 AFP + 0.011 × ALP - 0.008 × ALT)]}	Wang et al[96], 2016
Doylestown Plus	Age, logAFP, PEG-precipitated IgG, fucosylated kininogen	Singal et al[97], 2022
HES V1.0	Age, current AFP level, AFP change rate, ALT, platelets	Tayob et al[98], 2021
HES V2.0	Age, current AFP level, AFP change rate, ALT, platelets, AFP-L3, DCP	El-Serag et al[99], 2025

AFP: Alpha-fetoprotein; AFP-L3: Lens culinaris agglutinin-reactive fraction of alpha-fetoprotein; DCP: Des-gamma-carboxy prothrombin; PIVKA-II: Protein induced by vitamin K absence or antagonist-II; TP: Total protein; ALP: Alkaline phosphatase; ALT: Alanine aminotransferase; IgG: Immunoglobulin G.