Mesenchymal stem cell secretome and exosomes as potential advanced therapy medicinal products for treating a failing heart

Table 3 Summary of the most commonly employed isolation methods for exosomes with their respective advantages and limitations

Isolation method	Advantages	Limitations	Purity/yield
Differential ultracentrifugation	Well-established and widely used	Labor-intensive; potential co-isolation of proteins	Moderate purity, variable yield
Size-exclusion chromatography	High purity; minimal protein contamination	Requires specialized equipment	High purity, moderate yield
Ultrafiltration	Scalable, GMP-compatible, rapid	Risk of membrane clogging; limited selectivity	Good yield, moderate purity
Polymer precipitation kits	Simple and cost-effective	High protein contamination; unsuitable for clinical-grade use	Low purity, high yield

GMP: Good Manufacturing Practice.