Potential therapeutic applications of antler stem cells and their derivatives

Table 1 Antler stem/progenitor cell populations

Population	Anatomical/temporal location	Defining or associated markers	Functional role	Ref.
AP cells	Frontal crest before the pedicle initiation in deer calves	MSC markers; embryonic-type markers	Initiate pedicle and first antler formation	[1,5,6]
PP cells	Pedicle in puberty and adulthood	MSC markers; STRO-1-type profile	Cell source of annual regeneration	[2,4,5]
RM cells	The distal regenerating antler, the outermost layer beneath the skin	Proliferative MSC profile	Provide progenitors during elongation	[5,42]
Antler blastema progenitor cells	Early stage of RM tissue	PTN, TNN, TNC, DLX5	Strong osteogenic/regenerative driver	[12]
RXFP2+ cells	A key sub-population of AP cells	RXFP2	Postnatal antler development	[13]

Antlerogenic periosteum cells, pedicle periosteum cells, and reserve mesenchyme cells are primarily defined by anatomical origin, whereas antler blastema progenitor cells and RXFP2-positive antlerogenic periosteum cells were identified using more specific molecular or single-cell approaches. AP: Antlerogenic periosteum; MSC: Mesenchymal stem cell; PP: Pedicle periosteum; RM: Reserve mesenchyme.