Post-translational modifications in osteogenic differentiation of oral-derived stem cells: Mechanisms and clinical implications

Table 1 Comparison of oral-derived stem cell subtypes for osteogenic applications

ODSC type	Osteogenic potential	Key features	Clinical application scenarios	Ref.
DPSCs	High	Forms bone-like structures, suitable for pulp and alveolar repair	Dental pulp regeneration, calvarial and alveolar bone defects	[8,9,18]
GMSCs	Very high	High ALP activity, strong anti-inflammatory and antioxidant capacity	Periodontitis and chronic inflammatory environments	[5,13]
PDLSCs	Moderate	Responsive to gene modification, secretes paracrine factors	Periodontal regeneration, alveolar ridge restoration	[11,12,15]
SHEDs	High	Fast proliferation, suitable for pediatric regenerative applications	Tooth socket preservation, pediatric bone regeneration	[10]
DFPCs	High	Differentiates into osteoblasts, cementoblasts; important for root development	Tooth root and periodontal tissue engineering	[14,16]

ODSC: Oral-derived stem cell; DPSCs: Dental pulp stem cells; GMSCs: Gingiva-derived mesenchymal stem cells; PDLSCs: Periodontal ligament stem cells; SHEDs: Stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth; DFPCs: Dental follicle progenitor cells; ALP: Alkaline phosphatase.