Current perspectives on regenerative potential of mesenchymal stem cells in alleviating cardiac injuries: Molecular pathways and therapeutic enhancement

Table 1 Mechanism of action of mesenchymal stem cells in cardiovascular diseases

Type of mesenchymal stem cells	Human/animal study	Therapeutic role of the used stem cells	Mechanism of activation/enhancing stem cell action	Ref.
Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells	Mice model	Paracrine secretion of pigment epithelium-derived factor	Using younger mesenchymal stem cells	[92]
Cord blood-derived human mesenchymal stem cell	Rat model	Formation of cardiomyocyte-like cells	Induction of differentiation into cardiomyocyte-like cells	[38]
Human mesenchymal stem cells	Canine animal model	Formation of three-dimensional spheroids	Induction of differentiation and formation of three-dimensional spheroids	[37]
Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells	Yorkshire swine animal model	Cardiogenesis	Not activated	[93]
Adult human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells	Human study	Reducing arrhythmia, promoting angiogenesis and tissue perfusion	Not activated	[40]
Human adipose tissue derived mesenchymal stem cells	Yorkshire cross domestic pigs	Immunomodulation and promoting angiogenic	Not activated	[41]
Rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells	Rat model	Immunomodulation	Cyclooxygenase-2 overexpressing cells	[42]
Rat and human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells	Rat model	Immunomodulation	Sug1 knockdown MSCs	[94]
Mice bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells	Mice model and in vitro study	Immunomodulation	Not activated	[28,29]
Human mesenchymal stem cells	Rat model and in vitro study	Immunomodulation and differentiation into smooth muscle-like cells	LL-37-activated	[35]
Human mesenchymal stem cells	C57BL/6J mice	Inhibition of pyroptosis and immunomodulation	Not activated	[54]
Human umbilical cord blood-derived mesenchymal stem cells	cTnT (R141W) transgenic mouse and in vitro study	Cardiac regeneration, pro-angiogenesis, antifibrosis, and anti-apoptotic	In vivo (unconditioned); in vitro (hypoxic conditioning)	[52]
Rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells	Rat study	Angiogenesis and muscle regeneration	Not activated	[58]
Human umbilical cord blood-derived mesenchymal stem cells	Mice study	Attenuating pulmonary artery remodeling	Not activated	[62]
Wharton's jelly-derived mesenchymal stem cells	Human study (patients with ST elevation myocardial infarction)	Cardiogenesis	Not activated	[95]
Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells	Human study (patients with acute myocardial infarction)	Cardiogenesis, immunomodulation, and pro-angiogenesis	Autologous cells, not activated	[96]
Adipose tissue derived mesenchymal stem cells	Rat study	Antioxidant and anti-apoptotic effect	Resveratrol activated	[97]
Umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells	Human study	Immunomodulatory effects	Not activated	[31]
Autologous mesenchymal stem cells or bone marrow mononuclear cells	Human study	Cardiogensis and antifibrotic	Not activated	[98]
Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells	Rat study (both in vivo and in vitro)	Differentiation into functional beta-cells, restoration of glucose homeostasis, and antioxidant effect	Resveratrol-activated	[99]
Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells	Rat study	Pro-angiogenesis, gap junction formation, and improving survival	Ang II-activated	[100]
Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells	Rat study	Antiapoptotic effects, pro-angiogenesis, and anti-fibrotic effects	Not-activated and resveratrol-activated	[56]
Mesenchymal stem cells from various sources	Human and animal (diabetic rat models)	Antiapoptotic effects and improving proliferation and cell survival	Resveratrol-activated	[101]