Advances in mesenchymal stem cell therapy for lupus nephritis

Table 2 Comparison of mesenchymal stem cell sources and their characteristics[9-11]

Source	Method of procurement	Advantages	Disadvantages
BM-MSCs	Isolated from BM aspiration	Potential to differentiate into hepatocytes, much like AD-MSCs; short culture time	Invasive and painful procedure; use of anesthesia; cell yield, longevity and potential for differentiation diminishes with donor age
UC-MSCs	Isolated from the placenta, amnion and UC blood after birth	Avoidance of invasive procedures; abundance; reliability of sample collection; lack of transmission of herpes viruses; higher expansion and engraftment capacity than BM-MSCs	UC-MSCs may not have adipogenic potential; less osteogenesis potential
AD-MSCs	Isolated from liposuction, lipoplasty or lipectomy materials	Easy to access; abundant throughout the body; secrete cytokines and growth factors with anti-inflammatory, antiapoptotic and immunomodulatory properties; lower risk of immune rejection because of the absence of MHC-II antigen expression	Inferior osteogenic and chondrogenic potential in comparison to BM-MSCs
DT-MSCs	Isolated from tooth extraction or root canal surgery materials	Accessible source; higher frequency of colony forming cells from dental pulp compared to those from BM	Difficult and invasive procedure; ectomesenchymal and periodontal tissues affect MSC properties
MSC-Exos	Isolated from the cultural supernatant of MSCs using high speed centrifugation	Easy to obtain in large quantities from immortalized cells; lower immunogenicity; less possibility of graft rejection; higher safety profile due to the nanoscale size	Fast clearance of MSC-Exos limit their long-term therapeutic effects; heterogeneity of MSC-Exos due to different culture conditions and cell passages

BM-MSCs: Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells; BM: Bone marrow; UC-MSCs: Umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells; UC: Umbilical cord; AD-MSCs: Adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells; DT-MSCs: Dental tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells; MSC-Exos: Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes; MSC: Mesenchymal stem cell; MHC-II: Class II major histocompatibility complex.