Post-translational modifications in the oral microenvironment: Stem cell regulation from periodontal regeneration to oral cancer therapy

Table 1 Dental-derived stem-cell types and post-translational modification signatures

Stem-cell type	Tissue source	Dominant PTMs reported	Key regulatory enzymes	Regenerative potency	Ref.
PDLSCs	Periodontal ligament	Histone H3K9/H3K14 acetylation; m6A RNA methylation; K48-linked ubiquitination	GCN5 (HAT); METTL3 (m6A writer); Smurf1 (E3 ligase)	High-drives alveolar bone, cementum and ligament regeneration	[7,24,36,41]
DPSCs	Dental pulp (dentin-pulp complex)	m6A RNA methylation; histone H3K27/H3K9 acetylation; p38/JNK phosphorylation	METTL3 (m6A writer); p300/GCN5 (HATs); p38 MAPK (kinase)	High-supports dentin-pulp repair and neurovascular regeneration	[10,25,26,29,43]
SCAPs	Apical papilla of immature permanent teeth	m6A RNA methylation; stage-specific H3K9 acetylation	METTL3 (m6A writer); HAT (e.g., GCN5)	Very high-promotes root development, angiogenic osteogenesis	[40,50,51]

PTM: Post-translational modification; PDLSCs: Periodontal ligament stem cells; DPSCs: Dental pulp stem cells; SCAPs: Stem cells from the apical papilla; m6A: N6-methyladenosine; JNK: C-Jun N-terminal kinase; GCN5: General control non-depressible 5; METTL3: Methyltransferase-like 3; MAPK: Mitogen-activated protein kinases; HAT: Histone acetyltransferase.