Targeting adipose remodeling: Synergistic mechanisms of drugs and adipose-derived stem cells in obese type 2 diabetes mellitus

Table 1 Metabolic and inflammatory characteristics of visceral adipose tissue vs subcutaneous adipose tissue

Dimension	VAT	SAT
Adipocyte size/insulin sensitivity	Large adipocytes, insulin-resistant	Small adipocytes, insulin-sensitive
Proinflammatory/anti-inflammatory profile	IL-6 (↑), TNF-α (↑), resistin (↑)	Adiponectin (↑)
Lipolysis/FFA output	High basal lipolysis, FFA enters portal circulation first	Lower lipolysis, buffers postprandial FFA
Hypoxia/ROS and mitochondrial function	Marked hypoxia, ROS (↑), mitochondrial dysfunction	Relatively preserved mitochondrial function
ECM remodeling and fibrosis	ECM deposition (↑), prone to fibrosis	Mild
Macrophage infiltration	Increased M1 macrophages, crown-like structures prominent	Lower inflammatory infiltration

VAT: Visceral adipose tissue; SAT: Subcutaneous adipose tissue; IL-6: Interleukin 6; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor alpha; FFA: Free fatty acid; ROS: Reactive oxygen species; ECM: Extracellular matrix; M1: Classically activated macrophage (proinflammatory phenotype).