Applications of stem cells and bioprinting for potential treatment of diabetes

Table 1 Results of some mesenchymal stem cells clinical trials in diabetes mellitus type 1[45]

Types	Routes of transplantation	Outcome
Human MSCs	Intravenously introduced to Non-obese diabetic/Severe combined immunodeficiency mice with total body irradiation or local abdominal or leg irradiation	Safe and efficient for the long-term treatment of severe complication after radiotherapy[46]
Umbilical cord derived MSCs	Injected directly into the pancreas	Improvement of metabolic control. Enhancement of islet engraftment and survival[42]
Bone marrow-derived MSC	Differentiated in vivo into functioning β-cells	Normalization of chronic hyperglycemia in a diabetic rat[47]
Human placenta ‑derived MSCs	Differentiated into islet-like cell clusters and transplanted into streptozocin-induced diabetic mice	Restoration of normoglycemia in diabetic mice[48]
Human umbilical cord blood derived MSCs	Differentiated into IPC through intravenous administration	Improvement in glycemic profiles, histological improvement of insulates[49]
Wharton's jelly and amniotic membrane derived MSCs	(1) Differentiated into IPC and transplanted into the liver; (2) Infected with PDX1 gene and differentiated to IPC; and (3) Differentiated into IPC and transplanted into the liver of STZ-induced diabetic rats	Expression of insulin Secretion of C-peptide; expression of pancreas-specific genes[49]; correspondence to high concentrations of glucose[50]; reduction of blood glucose levels after 4 wk of transplantation[51]

MSCs: Mesenchymal stem cells; IPC: Insulin-producing cells.